Academic Self-Concept, Self-Esteem, and Academic Achievement among Truant and Punctual Students

School drop-out is one of the major concerns that hamper youth’s progress in professional setting. Truancy and run away from school is leading cause for such drop-outs. The present study was aimed to examine the role of truancy in academic self-concept, self-esteem, and academic achievement through a comparison between truant and punctual students. A purposive sample of 200 students (Truant = 100, Punctual = 100) participated in the study. Age range was 12-18 years. Urdu versions of Academic self-concept (Ahmed, 1986) and Self-Esteem Scales Questionnaire, (Rifai, Ward, Borden, & Wilson, 1995) were used. Results showed that punctual students had significantly superior academic achievement than truant students. Academic self-concept has positive relationship with the self-esteem of the students regardless of being truant and punctual. Self-competence, self-acceptance, and academic self-competence as domains of self-esteem were found predictors self-concept in truant students, whiles self-acceptance and social and physical self-acceptance were significant predictors of self-concept for punctual students. Truancy/punctuality did not play a moderating for self-esteem in predicting academic self-concept. Limitations, implications of the study and suggestions for future research are discussed. This study would be beneficial for educational and clinical setting to enhance self-esteem to improve upon academic success of students.

Truancy is a considerable problem among adolescents with respect to its deleterious effects on young people and society at large (Henry & Huizinga, 2007). For example, truancy is associated with substandard academic performance and school dropout (Henry & Huizing, 2007) criminality, violence, and delinquency (Garry & Newsome, 2008). It is of major significance to understand the interpersonal and intrapersonal factors (parents, peers, school environment, etc.) to understand underlying psychology. Poor academic performance and emotional problems may be an important to be considered given that increased anxiety and depressive symptoms may be the risk or outcome factors for problematic externalizing behaviors (Forsterling & Binser, 2002) like running away from school or truancy.

Approximately 33 percent of students are absent each day in urban elementary and secondary schools (Gullatt & Lemoine, 1997). Such approximations show that the school nonattendance and truancy are related with low academic achievement (Lamdin, 1996; Peterson & Colangelo, 1996) and even school dropout (Dynarski & Gleason, 1999). Much of the extant of professional literature in both the school social work and education suggests that truancy in the early grades is one of the leading causes of school failure (Garry & Newsome, 2008). School failure and dropout are also associated with poor workforce preparation, which then limits job and earning power, thereby restricting opportunities for future education and training (Lochner & Moretti, 2004).

Research suggests that truant behaviors are more likely to exist among youths who have low self-esteem (Barth, 1984). The relationships between self-esteem and academic achievement have received much attention (Maruyama, Rubin, & Kings, 1981) and found these to be positively correlated (Bankston & Zhou, 2002). Good academic grades enhance one’s sense of worthiness and competence. Self-esteem and academic achievement seem to be most highly related between the years of about seven to fifteen. While some researchers have suggested that educational success becomes less central to self-esteem during late high school years and the years that follow (Bankston & Zhou, 2002). Therefore, target population for current study is students in age group 12 to 16 years.

Self-esteem is one of the most crucial researches topics in psychology (Gebauer, Riketta, Broemer, & Maio, 2008). Numerous studies have been conducted self-esteem on various factors (Anthony, Holmes, & Wood, 2007; Barry, Grafeman, Adler, & Pickard, 2007; Denissen, Penke, Schmitt, & van Aken, 2008; Guillon, Crocq, & Bailey, 2007; Hair, Renaud, & Ramsay, 2007; Hayes, Schimel, Faucher, & Williams, 2008; Lazaratou, Dikeos, Anagnostopoulos, & Soldatos, 2007; LeRouge, Nelson, & Blanton, 2006; Mukai & Costa, 2005; Pullmann & Allik, 2008; Denissen & Penke, 2008; Rubinstein, 2006; Traeen & Wang, 2006), much emphasizing its significance for adolescents, in mental health, and interpersonal relationship that are invariably linked with one’s self-concept.

Since decades studies show that the pupils of high self-esteem are able to perform better than the pupils with low self-esteem (Combs, 1964). Numerous researches have studied a positive relationship between academic achievement and self-esteem (Maruyama et al., 1981; Ross & Broh 2000; Pullmann & Allik, 2008). According to Pullmann and Allik (2008), low self-esteem is not essentially indication of a poor academic achievement; nevertheless, low self-esteem may be a significant predictor of superior school performance. However, recent studies have recommended that self-esteem had positive effect on later educational achievement (Marsh & O’Mara, 2008;Trautwein, Lüdtke, Köller, & Baumert, 2006). According to Aryana (2010), those students with high academic achievement predisposed to feel more convinced as compare to those students who are less satisfied in them, achieves less.

According to Pullman and Allik(2008), academic self-concept is a crucial variable which influences motivation and preference of the students on school tasks. It means where students have confidence in their academic abilities, they tend to invest more effort in completing tasks. Contrary to this, those who see themselves as having inadequate abilities tend to show little patience or preference when difficulties are encountered. Academic self-concept, therefore, acts as a functionally limiting factor in their cases, thus probably to restrict the extent to which academic achievement may vary. Considering the above, it is concluded thus that achievement scores may be influenced by students’ cognitive abilities as well as by their perception of those abilities. Marsh & Hau (2003) have also argued that non-cognitive variables are important aspects of academic achievement, while the rules of cognitive abilities and previous learning opportunities should in no way be underestimated. Academic self-concept in particular appears to be a potentially valuable construct for educators to consider in their attempt to understand individual students’ level of achievement. The relationship between the self-concept and achievement has been well documented (Caracosta & Michael, 1986).

Rice (1987) stated that an increasing amount of evidence supports the theory that there is a correlation between self-concept and achievement in school. Successful students feel more sense of personal worth and somewhat better about themselves in general the higher are the grades averages, the more likely the students is to have a high level of self-acceptance. Similar previous studies suggest that one of the most valuable thing a school can offer to a young person is a good self-image and the confidence which stems from it in his or her ability to learn and in social confidence suggests that low self-confidence in academic settings may create psychological distress, for example, several evaluative concepts such as academic self-concept and self-efficacy estimated have found to related to achievement and prestige in college. Students who have confidence in themselves have the courage to try and are motivated to live up what they believe about themselves students who have negative attitude about themselves impose limitations on their own achievement (Backes, 1994) such is also observed in gender differences with respect to achievement and related attitudes (Backes, 1994).

As for as the Pakistani perspective of truancy is concerned few studies have been conducted (see e.g., Ambreen, 2012; Aqeel, 2012; Tahira, 2011; Zahra, 2012) that tried to explore role of psychosocial factors and outcomes related to school truancy. For example, study on role of perceived parenting styles and social adjustment suggested that adolescents who were truants had less social adjustment as compare to adolescent who were punctual and high achievers and truant students perceived their parents more permissive than punctual and high achievers (Tahira, 2011). Aqeel (2012) found the role of parental school involvement and problems faced by students and found significant link with truancy and punctuality. Similar study on truancy revealed that personality traits, parental school involvement. Ambreen (2012) and Zahra (2012) found the significant role of personality and peer influence in drifting boys towards truancy. Zahra (2012) conducted qualitative study based on focus group discussions and found phenomenon to be much prevalent in boys than girls.

Studies which report sex linked differences are not in a consistent direction regarding findings, like some indicate that academic achievement is more important for the self-esteem of the girls (Cotler & Palmer, 1970). Conger (1973) suggests that the girls’ self-esteem is anchored to interpersonal relations more often compared to boys, while boys are more conscious of achievement and physical strength that can enhance self-concept. Moreover, research has found that boys are more likely than girls to be absent from school (Galloway, 1983).In the current study on boys are focused as phenomenon of school truancy in Pakistani context is much prevalent in boys and from cultural perspective men’s are needed to be achievement oriented to be in bread winner role.

Researchers studying truancy tend to classify the reasons for truancy under three categories, named as personal factors, family, and social factors, and factors arising from school. Researchers have revealed that school attendance issues are influenced by antisocial peers and peer pressure (Doss & Holley, 1985), and that increasing age is associated with truant behaviors (Klerman, 1988). Parent/guardian involvement in school is less likely among youths who are truant than those who attend school more regularly (Amatu, 1981; Aqeel, 2012).Adolescents spend more time in school than in any other place outside their homes. School experiences play an important role in shaping their developmental trajectories (Roeser, Eccles, & Strobel, 1998). Academic performance has significant implications for adolescents' self-concept, as it would be taken as the key criterion for assessing a student in societies emphasizing education. Many studies suggest that self-concept is closely tied to academic achievement in adolescents (Denissen, Zarrett, & Eccles, 2007). There had been a lot of researches on this academic achievement relationship and self-esteem has been conducted previously, but the topic remains controversial and inconclusive (Naderi, Abdullah, Aizan, Sharir, & Kumar, 2009).

In the indigenous context, the familial and social factors have been addressed in the prior research in reference to school truancy, however, personal factors in reference to academic setting have not been researched. The present study is an attempt to bridge this gap. Hereby the present study aims to examine the differences among the truants and punctual students with respect to academic self-concept, self-esteem, and academic achievement. In the present research, adolescents from the class 6 to class 10^th have been included. This is a transitional and most crucial phase where adolescents have to take major decision for their academic and professional aspirations. And as per developmental demands they need autonomy and are in phase of exploration for identity development where academics and feeling of personal worth is very much linked. Truancy at this phase can prove to be a major setback for future aspiration and healthy personality development and mental health.

On the basis of the literature review, following hypotheses are formulated:

1.	There is positive relationship among self-esteem, academic self-concept and academic achievement among truant students and punctual students
2.	Punctual students have positive academic self-concept and better grades than the truant students
3.	The Truant students have low self-esteem as compared to punctual students
4.	The punctual students have high academic-achievement than the truant students

METHOD

Participants
Purposive sampling technique was used in the study. The data was collected from different private and public schools and colleges of Rawalpindi/Islamabad. Adolescents belonging to 6^th grade to 10^th grades of ages ranged from 12 to 18 were included in the present study. Only those who voluntarily participated were included in the study. Total 200 students participated in the study with equal distribution of truant and punctual students. Truant students were those who remained absent for 21 days or more in the last year without any medical reason without the due permission, and knowledge of teachers and parents were considered as truants. Teachers and attendance helped in pinpointing truant and punctual students.

Instruments
Academic Self-Concept Scale. The scale was developed by Ahmed, (1986) consisted of 40-statements rated on 5 point rated Likert type scale response categories. The alpha coefficient of the test score on the scale is .89, indicating a high internal consistency. The negative items are 3,4,9,11,12,13,14,17,19,20,21,23,24,28,29,30,32, 33,38 and 39. High scores on the academic self-concept scale mean high academic self-concept and low scores mean low academic self-concept. For current sample, Cronbach alpha was .72 for truant and punctual students, independently.

Self-Esteem Scale. Scale consists of 29-items with 5 point Likert-type scoring format. It was developed by Rifai et al. (1995) for expressing evaluations of a global self and its various aspects. The Scale constitutes four subscales: Self-acceptance (11 items), Self-competence (6 items), Social and Physical Self-acceptance (7 items), and Academic Self-competence (5 items). Self-esteem Scale is a reliable and valid measure (Rifai et al., 1995). The internal consistency as indicated by the alpha coefficient value is .83. The split half reliability computed by Spearmen Brown correlation is .72, p < .00. It reveals that Self-Esteem Scale is a reliable and valid measure. Response categories vary from very low to very high. Negatively phrased 11 items were reversed scored. Cronbach alpha for punctual students was .60 and for truant students was .90 in current sample.

Academic achievement. For measuring academic achievement, the previous class marks and first term class marks were considered in academic achievement of the students.

Procedure
Sample was taken from schools of Rawalpindi/Islamabad. Firstly, schools were approached and researcher took the consent of the school administration and principals. Researcher explained the objectives and nature of the study and assured the school administrations that results would be confidential and would only be used for the research purpose. The concerned class teachers were briefed about the research and were asked to help select only those students who remained absent for 21 days or more in last year without any medical reason, permission, and knowledge of teachers and parents were considered as truants (Crespo, 1974). Those students who were absent 21 days or more due to medical reason were excluded. From the same class, punctual students were also taken based on the reporting of the teacher. Then the questionnaires were handed over to the participants and researcher instructed them to mark each and every item and not to leave any item unanswered. The informed consent was signed by each of the participants. There was no restriction of time for responding to the items in the questionnaires. The queries of the participants were answered appropriately. Analysis was run through SPSS 18.

RESULTS

For comparison between the truant and punctual students on the study variables independent sample t-test, Pearson Product Moment correlations, step-wise regression analysis, and moderated regression analysis was carried out. Independent sample t-test was computed for comparing truant and punctual students on study variables. Results in Table 1 show that punctual students significantly score high on first term and the previous class attained scores as indicator of academic achievement. This confirms the Hypothesis 4 that punctual students have high academic achievement than the truant students. Table 1 further reveals that punctual students score high on academic self-concept and self-esteem along its domains but results are nonsignificant. This rejects second and third hypotheses of the study.

Table 1:	Mean, Standard Deviations, and t-Values for Truant and Punctual Students on all Study Variables (N = 200)
Note. FTS=First term scores; PCS=Previous Class Scores; ASCon=Academic Self-Concept; SE = Self-esteem Total; SPSA=Social and Physical Self-acceptance; ASCom=Academic Self-competence; SC=Self-competence; SA = Self-acceptance df = 198

In Table 2, Pearson Product Moment correlations between study variables were computed. School system was also taken into account where Public is coded as 1 and Private as 2 to study its relationship with study variables.

Table 2:	Correlation between Academic Self-concept, Self-esteem, and Academic Achievement for Truant and Punctual Students (N = 100)
Note. SET = Self-esteem Total; SPSA=Social and Physical Self-acceptance; ASCom=Academic Self-competence; SC = Self-competence; SA = Self-acceptance; ASCon = Academic Self-Concept; FTS = First term scores; PCS = Previous Class Scores.Bold values in upper diagonal are for truant students and lower diagonal is for punctual students *p< .05. **p < .01

Table 2 reveals that self-esteem and its domains have significant positive relationship with academic self-concept for both punctual and truant students. This confirms Hypothesis 1. Academic achievement as indicated by previous and first-term class scores do not have significant relationship with self-esteem and academic self-concept. School system is significantly negatively correlated with self-esteem and academic self-concept for both groups showing that with increase in private system schooling self-esteem lowers down and academic self-concept also get negative. These correlations are more strong for truant students than punctual students. Significant subscale-to-total and inter-subscales correlations for Self-esteem Scale reflect upon its construct validity.

Table 3:	Step-wise Regression Analysis showing the Role of Self-esteem Domains in Predicting Academic Self-concept for Truant and Punctual students (N = 100)
*p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001

Step-wise regression analysis (see Table 3) was applied to study most significant predictor among domains of self-esteem for academic self-concept for both truant and punctual students. Table 3 reveals self-competence for truant students (24% variance) and self-acceptance for punctual students (37% variance) as the strongest predictor for academic self-concept. For truant students in Model 2 self-acceptance has an additional variance of 17% and in Model 3 academic self-competence takes the role of predictor with only 3% additional variance. Social and physical self-acceptance domain of self-esteem has been totally excluded as a predictor for academic self-concept. For punctual students, in Model 2, social and physical self-acceptance domain of self-esteem shows up as a predictor with variance of 9%. Remaining domains do not appear as significant predictors for punctual students.

Further, moderation of truancy/punctuality for domains of self-esteem in predicting academic self-concept was also explored by employing multiple hierarchical regression analysis. Interaction terms of truancy/punctuality with each domain was found to be nonsignificant in predicting academic self-concept, that is, with self-acceptance (β = -.02, p = .93), social and physical self-acceptance (β = -.09, p = .58), self-competence (β = -.30, p = .20), and academic self-competence (β = -.06, p = .78).

DISCUSSION

The present study aimed to explore the relationship between the academic self-concept, self-esteem, and academic achievement among truant and punctual students. The sample was taken from different private and government schools of Rawalpindi/Islamabad. Main study was carried out on total sample of 200 out of which half were truants and the other half included punctual students. For this purpose, self-reported measures were used.

Regarding hypotheses testing the 1^st hypothesis, “There is positive relationship among self-esteem, academic self-concept and academic achievement among truant students and punctual students.” is partially supported in the current results. The results in Table 2 showed that there was significant positive relationship between academic self-concept and self-esteem in punctual students as well as truant students. This shows significance of relationship between these variables regardless of nature of sample highlighting universal link between variables. Even nonsignificant moderations of truancy/ punctuality were found for self-esteem in predicting academic self-concept. Numerous researches revealed that the students who have good image of themselves have a better academic self-concept which boosts up their self-esteem (Marsh & Craven's, 2006). Low self-esteem is the absence of more positive than the presence of negative beliefs about the self (Baumeister, 1993). Adolescents with high self-esteem hold highly favorable beliefs about themselves. The students with low self-esteem lack those beliefs, but they generally do not hold firm unfavorable beliefs about themselves. That may be the reason for achieving nonsignificant moderation of truancy/punctuality for self-esteem in predicting academic self-concept. Nevertheless, unexpectedly, nonsignificant relationship of academic achievement with self-esteem and academic self-concept was found for both truant and punctual students.

A powerful and influential line of research on the self-concept that accompany different levels of self-esteem was conducted by Campbell and Fehr (1990) and Campbell and Lavallee, (1993). He explained that low self-esteem leads to confused self-concept. That is, people with high self-esteem have clear, consistent, and definite ideas about themselves than people with low self-esteem. When people with low self-esteem answer questions about themselves, they differ from people with high self-esteem in several ways; they tend to give uncertain answers or say they do not know. They give contradictory or inconsistent answers to the same questions on different occasions. All of these suggest that low self-esteem is marked by a lack of firm conviction.

Table 1 showed that the punctual students significantly scored high on academic achievement that is first term class numbers and the previous class numbers. This confirms the 4^th hypothesis. According to Gray and Jesson (1990), the studies revealed in the South Africa that the students who were truant failed three times and had low academic achievement; which later on lead to dropouts in the adolescents. Truants are restrained in the grades and fail in exams more often as compared to punctual students. Therefore, the hypothesis is accepted.

Hypothesis 3, which states that “The Truant students have low self-esteem as compared to punctual students” is not supported in the current research. Results revealed non-significant differences between truant and punctual students on self-esteem (see Table 1). A good deal of literature explained that it might happen that truancy can also be caused by the various different reasons (i.e., peer influence, environmental and parental factors, etc.) not because of the poor self-esteem (Jenkins & Zunguze, 1998).There are the other factors which lead an individual towards the truancy that may be peer groups as they have much influence on motivating the students, especially, with respect to adolescents, because no matter how inappropriate it seems to adults, belonging to a group really does give something significant to the young person. Peer groups provide a place where children feel accepted where they can feel good about themselves, and where their self-esteem is enhanced. Environmental factors including social support of peers matters a lot in truancy because friends/peers give help for skipping school and college and confirm with friends while skipping. Young people tend to gravitate toward other young people with the same problems and in the same situations of themselves and where they feel they will be understood and accepted. There is a very strong need to satisfy that thirst for unity and for acceptance. The feeling of belonging is a very powerful force that can outweigh ties to church, school, family, or community. In addition to the feeling of belonging and not being alone or socially isolated, some characteristics that peer groups offer which make them attractive and that families may lack are firstly a strong belief structure, secondly a clear system of rules, and thirdly communication and discussion about taboo subjects such as drugs and sex etc. All these factors are antecedents that lead toward the truancy (Jenkins & Zunguze, 1998).

The hypothesis 2 states that punctual students have positive academic self-concept and better grades than the truant students that was not supported in the current investigation. Results revealed that punctual students nonsignificantly scored high on academic self-concept (see, table. 1). Previous researches also explained that truancy is associated with poor academic performance and school dropouts (Henry & Huizinga, 2007). Rice (1987) stated that an increasing amount of evidence supports the theory that there is a correlation between self-concept and achievement in school. Successful students feel more sense of personal worth and somewhat better about themselves, in general, the higher are the grades averages the more likely the students are to have a high level of self-acceptance. Previous studies suggests that one of the most valuable thing a school can offer to a young person is a good self-image and the confidence which stems from it in his or her ability to learn and in social confidence suggests that low self-confidence in academic settings may create psychological distress, for example, several evaluative concepts such as academic self-concept and self-efficacy estimated have found to related to achievement and prestige in college. Students who have confidence in themselves have the courage to try and are motivated to live up what they believe about themselves students who have negative attitude about themselves impose limitations on their own achievement (Wehlage, 1989).

As predictors in domains of self-esteem for academic self-concept, it is evident that competence related concerns are more pronounced in truant students in predicting academic self-concept, while for punctual student’s self-acceptance followed by social and physical aspects of self-esteem are more significant in defining self-concept. Truant students are overweighing academics related self-competence to be important in evaluating themselves, while for punctual students, nature of social relationship and physical health related feelings of worth are important to build upon self-concept and they don’t seem to be much concerned with academics in defining their positive views about self. May be because they are already performing better in academic by virtue of their punctuality than truant students.

Interestingly, studying in private schools is found to be significantly related with low self-esteem and poor academic self-concept. It may be because, in Pakistan, private schools are often preferred in economically better classes who can afford expenses. Nevertheless, children who belong to these economic classes do not bother much in studying at school and many have joined academies in the evening. Zahra (2012) found that truant students belonging to economically better class believe that they can pass in exam by offering money to concerned authorities during exams, therefore, they need not to study. There is much trend of joining academies (other than school) for extra coaching in Pakistan, still it is not much appreciated. That may be the reason that in actual students who are studying on the basis of their money or in academies feel low about their abilities, hence, have more negative self-concept.

Getting admission in public school is quite a task in Pakistan, as students study there with much minimal amount. Therefore, in a class, strength may be more than 50 students and many sections are run at a given grade level. Teachers are also trained and are hired through proper public service commission. Parents may not much afford extra-coaching for their children in academies and teachers also discourage this practice. Concept of competition in exam exists at board level from primary that may help students to place their position with respect to a larger group under a given board. Students put more effort and teachers also encourage achieving good result, this may enhance students’ self-esteem and self-concept while studying in public sector. The role of school system has found to be equally likely for truant and punctual students, hence, reflect studying in public sector to be a protective factor promoting feelings of self-worth and positive self-concept.

IMPLICATIONS OF PRESENT STUDY

Consideration the findings of the present study the students can be given counter-truancy counseling for the development of positive image about their academic self-concept. Realistic self-esteem of the students might help the students facing with problems during their academics. Peer influence has a great pressure on the children, this can be used as a positive force to change the academic self-concept of the students by psycho-educating the peers to reduce or discourage truancy. Present study might help teachers’ and their interaction in dealing with adolescents considering how important the feelings of self-worth and related self-concept in academic setting for students. Teacher need to be vigilant about adolescents’ needs for preventing them from truancy. School system should be strengthened, especially, the public sector that appeared to have significant role in students’ feelings of self-worth and positive self-concept regardless being truant or punctual. Nevertheless, private sector is equally sharing the responsibilities for sharing governments need for educating masses, such schools must be controlled under some uniform system to monitor students’ progress and activities in the direction of getting good education. Competencies of truant students must be developed to have good self-concept, while, self-acceptance must be inculcated in punctual students to promote positive self-concept.

LIMITATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

There are many things yet to be covered regarding truancy which have remained unaddressed and need to be explored. Sample size of our research was not that large. Only the teachers and students were consulted, the parental point of view is one of the chief factors in viewing truancy that was not taken into account. Currently, the interpretation were perceptions of their own self-esteem and academic achievement, yet many other variables like peer influence, the role of home environment, and the cultural differences are still open for exploration which may play role in predicting truancy and views related to self. School environment could also have been addressed and using other reliable measures for measuring these phenomena. For further information, focus groups and qualitative questions could be incorporated that could have given additional information in study for having in-depth knowledge of the reason behind truancy. MANOVA analysis could have also been used for extensive comparison among truant and punctual students along study variables.

CONCLUSION

Present study revealed significant relationship between self-esteem and academic self-concept regardless of truancy/punctuality. Punctual students have better academic achievement than truant students but it has no link with self-esteem and academic self-concept. Studying in public school is a protective factor to enhance self-esteem and better self-concept. A feeling of competence is relevant to academic self-concept in truant students, while self-acceptance, social relationship, and physical strength are important for punctual students in building up positive self-concept.

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