Vocational Personality Types and Perceived Job Performance in Bankers and Teachers in Pakistan: Role of Occupational Self-Efficacy as Mediator

A cross-sectional study was conducted to explore the relationship between vocational personality types (Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional) and perceived job performance through occupational self-efficacy among bankers and school teachers in Pakistan. The sample comprised of 121 bankers with age range of 22 to 54 years (M=31.06, SD=6.03), and 119 schoolteachers with age range of 19 to 56 years (M=32.13, SD=7.70). 18 REST; RIASEC Examination Self Report Test (Ambiel, et al., 2018); Occupational self-efficacy scale; short version (Riggoti et al., 2008); and Individual Work Performance Questionnaire (Koopman, 2015) were used to assess vocational personality types, occupational self-efficacy and perceived work performance respectively. Structural Equation Modeling through Smart PLS revealed that among bankers, occupational self-efficacy mediated the relationship between social and enterprising personality types and job performance. Whereas, among teachers; social personality type positively predicted job performance independently. The current study has valuable implications in educational as well as organizational setup in preparing or selecting the right person for the right job.

Career choice is an important phase in a person's life that requires certain qualities in order to be successful (Ahmed et al., 2017). Few careers require explicit personality traits that can influence and determine the individual’s affectivity in job performance in general and specifically to his particular career (Holland, 1997). Apart from personality types, job performance depends upon many other factors like working environment, job security, organizational operations, incentives, and rewards (Hassan & Ogunkoya, 2014) yet personal satisfaction about the career choice is the most crucial one (Zaidi & Iqbal, 2012). Empirical evidence has also illustrated that if individuals with specific personality type select relevant career are more likely to have strong occupational self-efficacy (Betz et al., 1996; Peng & Mao, 2015; Srsic & Walsh, 2001;). By Looking into theoretical background of the connection between personal characteristics, career choice and job performance, it can be inferred from Bandura’s (1977) cognitive theory that a person’s belief regarding his capabilities to perform specific tasks can have a constructive or aversive impact on his job performance. The multidimensional model of personality (i.e., five-factor model) facilitating job performance of workers in different job settings have been extensively investigated for the longer period (Huynh et al., 2020; Judge et al., 2002; Salgado, 1997). The role of occupational self-efficacy has also been investigated in predicting job performance in different sample like nurses and accountants (Cetin & Celik, 2018; Kappagoda, 2018). In Pakistan, almost every individual has to confront the issue of choosing the right vocation. Two of the most prevalent professions in Pakistan are banking and teaching (Zaidi & Iqbal, 2012) after Medical and Engineering. Private schools and private banks are increasing their networks across cities. Greater the network, greater is the need for work-force. Hence, both of these groups of organizations hire professionals based on education and confidence, ignoring their specialties and interests. The effect of vocational personality types and occupational self-efficacy on job outcomes is the least researched area in Pakistan. There is a strong need to explore these factors in Pakistan to increase the productivity of the right people in the right professions.
The current research is based upon the phenomena of
Person-Environment Fit derived from Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) (Lent et al., 1994); which emphasizes three intertwining processes; how vocational and academic interests develop; how careers are selected; and how performance results are attained. SCCT’s model of performance is involved with the level of people’s achievements, as well as the determination of their behavior in career-related pursuits. In this model, the interactive relationship between ability, self-efficacy, and outcome expectations determines performance consequences. Capability (as evaluated by accomplishment, aptitude, or previous performance identifiers) is seen as influencing performance through its influence on self-efficacy and outcome expectations (Lent et al., 1994).
With reference to the current research, capability in SCCT is based upon Holland’s Typologies (1985). Vocation guidance researcher John Holland (1959) proposed six occupational personality types (Brown, 2002) that serve as the source of occupational self-efficacy identified in SCCT. Holland (1959, 1997) postulated that in any culture, most people can be classified into one of the six types realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional. There are six ideal environments realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional. People with specific personality type search for the relative environment to utilize their skills and abilities. A person can have characteristics of one or more related personality types and perform well in a relative environment. Individuals having a realistic personality type like to perform activities that include practical, direct problems, and their resolutions. They have expertise in operating tools, mechanical or electrical drawings, machines, or plants and animals. Individuals with investigative personality types are usually interested in tasks involving ideas and thinking. They prefer studying and solve math or science problems. They usually escape from leading, selling, or persuading people. People with artistic personality type prefer to do innovative tasks like art, drama, craftsmanship, dancing, or creative writing and don’t like to get involved in highly organized or repetitive activities. Individuals possessing social personality types prefer helping people; like teaching, counseling, nursing, or giving information. They see themselves as cooperative, welcoming, and trustworthy. People with enterprising personalities prefer to lead and convince people, and to sell things and ideas. People with conventional personality enjoy working with numerical data, keep records, or machines in a set and in an organized manner. They generally escape from uncertain and unstructured activities.
Capability affects self-efficacy as proposed in SCCT. Effect of capabilities in occupational self-efficacy was assessed in the current research. Occupational self-efficacy is domain specific self-efficacy and person’s self-assurance about his/her abilities to give the best of his performance in a certain profession. Strong occupational self-efficacy helps individuals to stay peaceful when encountered with a challenging situation in his/her work and he/she apprehends that he/she can suggest resolutions for whatsoever situations faced in his functions (Rigotti et al., 2008). Stronger self-efficacy beliefs and encouraging outcome expectations endorse goals that are more determined and assist people to mobilize and withstand their performance behavior (Lent et al., 1994). According to the performance model of SCCT (Lent et al., 1994) capability is seen as affecting performance through self-efficacy.
Job performance is elucidated as the behaviors and actions of employees at work. These behaviors are mostly under the control of the individual apart from environmental constrictions (Koopmans et al., 2011) that contribute positively or negatively to individual’s performance that ultimately led to organizational goal achievement. Task performance involves employee behaviors, which are directly concerned with the conversion of organizational resources into goods or services that the organization yields. It comprises the set of clear responsibilities that an employee must fulfill in order to receive compensation and continued employment. Contextual performance can be understood as a set of activities that provide support to the organizational, social, and psychological environment. Behaviors involve assisting peer and group performance, collaborating, and interactive. On the contrary, counterproductive work behavior is the negative form of job performance that includes behaviors adapted to deliberately hinder organizational goal accomplishment (Colquitt et al., 2015). These aspects of job performance when evaluated subjectively are known as perceived job performance. Perceived job performance is considered as a more reliable and consistent way of measuring job performance as objective performance may not completely assess full range of task performances (Koopman et al., 2011; Murphy, 2008).
It has been observed that when individuals with specific personality type select a career according to their personality, they are more likely to have strong occupational self-efficacy (Ajibade et al., 2016). Holland’s theory and work-related self-efficacy had been tested on 259 undergraduate students of Japan. Self-efficacy in men was considerably greater than women’s realistic domain, women reported greater self-efficacy for the artistic domain (Matsui & Tsukamoto, 1991). Betz et al. (1996) explored that in a group of professionals, the self-efficacy beliefs of men and women were very similar and were almost in line with Holland’s interest codes of the profession. Confidence was found to have a moderate correlation with interest according to specific themes. Being aware of one’s own choice and strengths and weaknesses are two basic principles of achieving the best performance. If a person chooses a career according to his/her personality, he/she will be more confident about his/her skills and abilities to perform certain jobs, ultimately will become able to give the best performance (Hirschhorn, 2010; Lent et al., 1994). This phenomenon is further supported by the study conducted on accountants in Poland (Cevinska et al., 2017) bank employees in Sri Lanka (Kappagoda, 2018) and employees of various organizations in Turkey (Cetin & Celik, 2018).
The association between occupational self- efficacy and job performance can also be explained by reviewing somehow similar factors as discussed in the proceeding studies. Salespersons’ level of calling (motivation to perform duties) had a significant relationship with component of job performance, organizational citizenship behavior but not with job performance. Occupational self-efficacy fully mediated the relationship between salespersons’ sense of calling and their job performance and partially mediated the relationship between their sense of calling and organizational citizenship behavior (Park et al., 2015). Findings of another study with 1,214 teachers from Dutch secondary schools indicated that classroom self-efficacy and relationship satisfaction play a significant role in the association between the indicators (Canrinus et al., 2012). Rahayu et al. (2018) examined the impact of self-efficacy, job satisfaction, and work culture on job performance of telemarketing staff in the banking sector. Self-efficacy, work culture, and job performance were found to have a positive impact on job performance. Findings from a study conducted with doctors and nurses in Pakistan indicated that self-efficacy had a significant positive relationship with job performance (Salman et al., 2016). Self-efficacy and occupational self-efficacy have been found to serve as a mediator between personality type and job performance (Hirschi & Jaensch, 2015; Hootegem & Witte, 2019; Park et al., 2015; Sheu et al., 2010).

Hypotheses

In the light of SCCT and existing literature, it was hypothesized that in bankers;

• Conventional, investigative, and realistic personality types would positively predict occupational self-efficacy and job performance.
• Occupational self-efficacy would mediate the relationship between conventional, investigative, realistic personality type, and job performance.

For teachers, the following hypotheses are phrased:

• Social, artistic, and enterprising personality type would positively predict occupational self-efficacy and job performance.
• Occupational self-efficacy would also mediate the relationship between social, artistic, and enterprising personality types and job performance.

Method

Participants

Sample of the study comprised of 240 participants with 121 bankers and 119 school teachers who were approached at their workplaces. In Pakistan, job requirement for banking requires 14 to 16 years of education with specialization in accounting, finance or business along with effective communication skills and high confidence level; whereas, job requirement for teaching is minimum graduation degree in any of the subject along with effective communication skills, problem solving, decision makes skills, and extraversion personality. For the current research, nine private banks of the same level (having almost similar network of branches, and follow the policies provided by State bank of Pakistan and got ranked on same levels based upon growth in different factors i.e., corporate and domestic banking, assets and liabilities) were selected (State Bank of Pakistan, 2018). Bankers and teachers having at least 14 years of education and one year of experience were selected. Bankers from HR department were not included in the research because they have their specialization in human resource management and different job description than typical bankers. The response rate among bankers was 62.2%. 225 bankers were approached at targeted branches out of them 156 agreed to participate and received the questionnaires.140 returned the questionnaires. 11 had to be discarded due to missing responses in each scale thus and 121 were retained for data analyses. Data collection in banks started on January 15, 2020, and was completed on March 16, 2020.
For data collection from schools, list of private registered schools with almost similar network of branches was prepared. Four schools were randomly selected. Teachers from middle and high grades were selected. The response rate among teachers was 63.08%. 214 school teachers were asked to take part in the research and fill in the questionnaires. 160 agreed to participate, 135 returned the questionnaires. 16 had to be discarded due to missing responses. So, 119 were included in the analysis. The demographic characteristics of the participants included in the study are described in Table 1.

Table 1
Demographic Characteristics of Study Participants (N = 240)

Measures

18 REST

Vocational personality types were measured using the RIASEC Examination Self Report Test (18 REST) developed by Ambiel et al., (2018) with few adaptations (Amanatullah, 2020 ). This instrument consists of 18 statements; sets of 3: measuring 6 types of vocational personality types; Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional. Statements were based upon characteristics proposed by Holland (1959) . Participants had to rate each statement on a 5-point rating scale ranging from “I would dislike strongly” to “I would like strongly”. The maximum score for each domain is 15 and 3 is minimum. A high score in any domain refers to the dominant personality type. Language of few statements of the scale was either not appropriate or difficult to understand as reported from pre testing. Those statements were rephrased after consultation with original author (Amanatullah, 2020 ).

Occupational Self -Efficacy Scale

The short version of the Occupational Self-Efficacy Scale adapted and validated by Rigotti et al. (2008) was used to assess one’s belief in one’s ability to perform job related tasks efficiently. The test comprises of 6 statements. Each item is rated on a six-point response scale ranging from 1 (not at all true) to 6 (completely true). A higher score indicates stronger occupational self-efficacy.

Individual Work Performance Questionnaire

Individual work performance questionnaire ( Koopman et al., 2013 ) was used to assess subjective evaluation of one’s job performance. It consisted of 18 statements. Participants rate each statement of 5-point rating scale ranging from 1 representing “seldom” to 5 representing “always”.

Procedure

Main branches or regional headquarters of the selected banks were visited to ask for the permission of data collection. Authorities of four banks excused from taking part in the research due to their privacy policies or workload. Five banks permitted the researcher to gather data from their employees at different branches. The list of branches of these banks was prepared and branches were selected randomly. The researcher visited the branches and had a meeting with the branch managers.  In those meetings the researcher introduced herself, explained the nature and purpose of the study, making sure the confidentiality of the research data, asked for permission to get the questionnaire filled by the participants. After getting permission, questionnaires were given to the bankers along with important instructions. 156 participants at 20 branches received the questionnaires. 64 questionnaires were returned within an hour, whereas 76 were collected later on, while 16 questionnaires were not returned. The researcher appreciated the cooperation and participation of the participants. 
Nine different branches of four selected schools were randomly visited. The nature and purpose of the study was explained to the principals of schools along with assurance of confidentiality of the research data. After getting permission from principals, researcher met with teachers in their free time Research questionnaire along with consent form were given to the teachers. 214 teachers were asked to participate in the research but 160 agreed to participate in the research. 56 teachers returned the questionnaire after completing them same day while filled questionnaires from 79 were collected later on 25 questionnaires did not return.

Results

Smart PLS3 (Ringle et al., 2015) was used for Structural Equation modeling of the research data. A Reflective model (Hair et al., 2016) was developed for 6 vocational personality types; realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional as exogenous constructs; job performance as endogenous construct and occupational self-efficacy as mediator. Measurement model examining the properties of constructs in relation to their indicators and structural model incorporating collinearity issues, relationships between all the constructs, and predictive relevance of endogenous variables were assessed on complete data set; whereas, correlation between the constructs and mediating effects were analyzed across two groups using multi-group analysis (Hair et al., 2016).
The model is presented in figure 1. Signs of + in the circles show that these constructs have indicators connected with them. Indicators have been hidden to make the model presentable.

Internal Consistency and Convergent Validity

Chronbach’s α and composite reliability were observed to figure out internal consistency of the constructs. Chronbach’s α is more sensitive measure and gives a relatively low value of reliability. Whereas, composite reliability is a bit flexible and slightly overestimates internal consistency thereby reporting comparatively high-reliability estimates (Garson, 2016). Therefore, SmartPLS recommend reporting both coefficients of internal consistency. AVE (Average Variance Extracted) is the measure of convergent validity. AVE value .5 indicates that the construct explains 50% of the variance of the indicators whereas the rest of the variance is in error terms (Hair et al., 2016). If the value of AVE is slightly less than 0.5 in the standardized construct but its composite reliability is greater than 0.6, it means that its convergent validity has been established (Fornell & Larcker, 1981) see Table 2.
The values of Cronbach's α and composite reliability shows that all the scales have met the criteria for internal consistency (see Table 2). Realistic and conventional scales have a slightly low value of Chronach’s α that is, 0.5 but the high value of composite reliability that is, 0.7 which was sufficient for the confirmation of internal consistency of these constructs. AVE of all the constructs is above the criterion, which is 0.4. It was observed in the initial analysis that AVE value of job performance scale was less than 0.4. Its composite reliability was also less than 0.6. In this situation, Hair et al. (2016) suggest the elimination of indicators with outer loading < 0.4. As the constructs used in the study was theory-based and have well established psychometric properties, we cannot eliminate the indicators as it may affect content validity. However, only two items from the job performance scale with outer loading less than 0.1 had to be removed. In the above-listed constructs AVE value for all of the constructs is greater than 0.4 (see Table 2). We can continue with the analysis because their convergent validity has been established (Huang et al., 2013).

Table 2
Psychometric Properties of the Constructs (N = 240)

Note. AVE = Average Variance Extracted.
1Number of items after deleting the items with outer loading less than 0.1.
2 Total number of items.

Discriminant Validity

The discriminant validity of the constructs was examined with the HTMT Criterion of less than 0.9 (Henseler et al., 2015).
Values in the Table 3 show that HTMT ratio of all constructs are less than 0.9 except that of Enterprising and Conventional. According to Bollen and Lennox (1991) discriminant validity is not an exclusive way of validating a construct. The theoretical basis behind any standardized constructs provides a strong base for their psychometric properties. The theoretical background of the constructs with low discriminant validity (on this research data) proposed by Holland (1985) justifies that enterprising, conventional, realistic, and investigative types are the vocational personality types. These types are based on interests. An individual can have more than one kind of vocational ability. People with enterprising personality types can perform well in the conventional environment. Ambiel et al. (2018) have standardized the assessment tool used to measure these constructs previously on a large sample.

Table 3
HTMT Ratio of the Constructs (N = 240)

Correlation Between Constructs

After establishing psychometric properties, correlations among study variables were calculated. Correlation results in Table 4 shows that investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional personality types had significant positive relationship with occupational self-efficacy and job performance among bankers. Furthermore, occupational self-efficacy had significant positive relationship with job performance.
Moreover, among teachers investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional personality types had significant positive relationship with occupational self-efficacy. Artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional personality types and occupational
self-efficacy also had significant positive relationship with job performance.

Table 4
Correlation Between Study Variables in Bank Employees (N = 121; Upper Diagonal) and Teachers (N = 119; Lower Diagonal)

Note.*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001. For Gender 1= Male, 2 = Female, For Family System 1= Nuclear 2 = Joint, For Job Nature 1= Frontline 2 = Back office.

The predictive capabilities of the overall model were assessed in two ways. At first, R2 was examined; which means the predictive power of all the exogenous constructs for linked endogenous constructs. Secondly, Predictive relevance (Q2) of the models was calculated. Predictive relevance is the out of sample predictive power of the model that means the predictive power of the model with missing data points (Hair et al., 2016). It was obtained by calculating though Blindfolding Procedure selecting Omission Distance of 7. That means every 7th response was eliminated from the data (Ringle et al., 2015).
According to Hair et al. (2011) R2 and Q2 value of 0.25 can be considered as weak, 0.50 as moderate, and 0.75 as strong.  R2 for occupational self-efficacy was 0.34, and for job performance was 0.38. It reflects that both of these constructs are moderately predicted by relative exogenous constructs. Q2 for Occupational self-efficacy was 0.19. Whereas for job performance was 0.14. It represents that exogenous constructs have weak out of sample predicted power for occupational self-efficacy and job performance. 
Path coefficients of the constructs, direct effects, specific indirect effects, total indirect effects were calculated to test the hypotheses of the study.
Results in Table 5 shows that contrary to hypotheses, realistic, investigative, and conventional personality type did not predict occupational self-efficacy and job performance among bankers. Furthermore, occupational-self-efficacy did not mediate the relationship between these personality types and job performance. However, social and enterprising personality types significantly predicted occupational self-efficacy. Moreover, occupational self-efficacy mediated the relationship between social and enterprising personality types and job performance.

Table 5
Path Co-Efficient and Indirect Effects in Bankers (N = 121)

Note. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.

Among teachers, only social personality type predicted job performance as expected. However, artistic, social and enterprising personality types did not predict occupational self-efficacy in teachers. Further, occupational self-efficacy did not mediate the relationship between any vocational personality type and job performance.

Table 6
Path Co-Efficient and Indirect Effects in Teachers (N = 119)

Note.  *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.

In a nutshell, occupational self-efficacy mediated the relationship between social and enterprising personality and job performance in bankers. Whereas, in teachers only social personality type predicted job performance.

Discussion

The current research explored the role of vocational personality types in performance of bankers and teachers. Mediating role of occupational self-efficacy between these personality types and job performance was also assessed. It was hypothesized that in teachers social, artistic and enterprising personality types would positively predict occupational self-efficacy and job performance. Social and artistic personality types are considered best for the teaching profession (Farr & Shatkin, 2009). Findings uncovered that artistic, social, and enterprising personality type did not predict occupational self-efficacy in teachers in Pakistan. However, social personality directly predicted job performance among teachers. Although, these findings apparently seem to be incongruent with the previous studies (Betz et al, 1996; Matsui & Tsukamoto, 1991) according to which personality appropriate jobs lead to stronger self-efficacy. But it may be that teachers’ job in Pakistan does not require much of artistic and enterprising characteristics specifically in middle and high schools. In these classes teachers’ job requires maintenance of students’ records and keeps track of the paper work apart for their actual duties. Teachers are expected to maintain discipline in the class, and make their students reproduce exactly what they have learnt. These tasks require teachers to interact with students and guide them to learn in a manner that brings them good marks. This is supported by previous studies conducted by Ajibade et al. (2016); Majeed (2018); Woods (2014). These studies revealed that people with personality types suitable for a specific profession have better job performance. People with social personality types prefer helping others and usually adopt teaching, medicine, or nursing profession (Holland, 1985).
Furthermore, teachers with conventional personality type had strong occupational self-efficacy but their occupational self-efficacy did not seem to contribute to their perceived performance. People with conventional personalities like to maintain records and archive data (Farr & Shatkin, 2009). Teachers have to maintain students’ records of attendance, behavior, and academic results (Mills, 2018). Therefore, teachers good at such tasks may think themselves capable of handling job requirements. But focusing more on this conventional aspect of their job they are not able to fulfil the primary requirement of the teaching.
It was further hypothesized that conventional, investigative and realistic personality types would predict job performance in bankers through occupational self-efficacy. However, unexpectedly, it was found that employees with social and enterprising personality types working in banks had strong occupational self-efficacy. Further occupational self-efficacy mediated the relationship between these two personality types and job performance. People with enterprising personality type like to lead and persuade people, and to sell things and ideas whereas people with social personality type like to do things to help people (Farr & Shatkin, 2009). 75% of the bankers in current sample were front line workers who spend 8 hours of the day while serving customers and are busy in assisting them with their problems and also persuading them to their new business products. This may be the reason that these personality types are strong predictors of occupational self-efficacy that leads to better job performance in them.

Conclusion

In the light of Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) and previous literature, the current study was designed to explore the effect of career suitable vocational personality type on job performance, mediated through occupational self-efficacy among bankers and teachers. The reason of selecting these two professions is the prevalence of these professions in Pakistan. According to John Holland realistic, investigative, and conventional are suitable personality types for bank job. Whereas, social, enterprising and artistic personality type are considered appropriate for teaching.
Findings revealed that among bankers, social and enterprising personality types predicted occupational self-efficacy. Occupational personality types mediated the relationship between social enterprising personality type and job performance. Among teachers, social personality types predicted job performance. Whereas, conventional personality type significantly predicted occupational self-efficacy.

Limitations and Suggestions

Cross-sectional nature of study hinders from drawing causal inferences. Longitudinal studies should be conducted to understand the role of personality in job performance. Self-report questionnaire should be accompanied with objective assessments to better evaluate the job performance.

Implications

The current study can have meaningful implications in educational as well as organizational setup. In schools, if children are guided about their aptitude, they will be more confident while selecting subjects according to their interests and strive for career success later on. Along with this, distinctive requirements of particular jobs within a particular profession should be made clear to the applicants before they decide for that job. Similarly, if employees get the tasks assigned according to their aptitude based upon personality type, they will be more productive with the job.

Ethical Compliance

The research was conducted carefully following ethical guidelines of APA. Departmental Doctoral Program Committee of the University approved proposal of the study.

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Received 29 November 2022
Revision received 13 March 2024