Social Intelligence, Intellectual Humility, and Leadership Skills in Student Political Group Members

This correlational study aims to investigate the relationship between social intelligence, intellectual humility, and leadership skills in student political group members. It determines how social intelligence and intellectual humility will predict the leadership skills of student political group members. A sample of 140 members of students’ political groups at Punjab University, Lahore, 82 male students (58.6%) and 58 female students (41.4%) are recruited by non-probability sampling technique. A comparable sample of members of student political groups with Pashtoon Education Development Movement (n = 36; 25.7%), Punjab Council (n = 24; 17.1%), Baloch Council (n = 40; 28.6%), Islami Jamiat-e-Talaba (n = 28; 20.0%) and Punjab University Students Federation (n = 12; 8.6%), is examined. Tromso Social Intelligence Scale (TSIS) by Silvera et al. (2001), the Comprehensive Intellectual Humility Scale (CIHS; Krumrei-Mancuso & Rouse, 2015) and the Leadership Skills Questionnaire (LSQ) by Northouse (2007) are used to assess research variables. Findings show that social intelligence and intellectual humility have a significant positive correlation with leadership skills in student political group members. Social intelligence, intellectual humility, and residential areas are significant predictors of leadership skills. No gender differences were found in social intelligence, intellectual humility, and leadership skills in student political group members. Results of one-way ANOVA show that interpersonal skills have significant differences between the student political groups. This study underscores the importance of discussing leadership skills in universities and addressing the consequences of students lacking these skills in Pakistan's diverse community.

Student political groups in Pakistan are gaining ground in public and private education. In Lahore's University of the Punjab, there are active student political groups. Their activities on university campuses have both beneficial and adverse effects on student life. Leaders are expected to analyze emotions, adapt their actions based on this evaluation (Goleman, 1995), and understand and manage interpersonal relationships within their groups. Recognizing the limitation of their perspective allows members to learn from peers and tap into the professoriate's expertise.

Social Intelligence refers to an individual's capacity for understanding, influencing, and participating in adaptive social interactions (Thorndike, 1920). The common belief that social intelligence plays a minimal role in scientific views of intelligence is an exception to Stogdill's notion of multiple intelligences (1950, 1974). Gardner, in contrast to Harrysson et al. (2012) and other advocates of general intelligence (Samuelson et al., 2014), posits that intelligence consists of seven separate forms, two of which are personal and social, while the others (linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, and bodily-kinesthetic) are "intellectual" abilities akin to Thurstone's basic mental powers.

Interpersonal intelligence is the capability to observe and discern others, while intrapersonal intelligence involves understanding one's internal emotional world. Komives et al. (1998) illustrated this with the case of Zazetsky, who, after suffering a brain injury, maintained social abilities despite significant cognitive impairment, unlike conditions like Down's syndrome and Alzheimer's disease that affect cognitive abilities but not social interaction.

The neurological basis of social intelligence, as described by Taylor and Cadet (1989), involves a stable cortical subsystem reliant on long-term memory for complex social decisions, a frontal-dominant subsystem for planning and generating social actions, and a limbic-dominant subsystem for rapid emotional responses. Research on the neural underpinnings of social thought and behavior, aside from emotions, remains largely speculative (Klein & Kihlstrom, 1998; LeDoux, 1996).

Intellectual Humility is the virtue of seeking the logical validity of one's beliefs without guilt (Samuelson et al., 2014). Intellectual Humility (IH) involves recognizing the practical limits of one's knowledge, as evidenced by openness to new ideas, and managing intellectual arrogance, as demonstrated by the ability to convey ideas in a non-offensive manner and receive opposing ideas without causing offense, even when confronted with differing viewpoints (Mcelroy et al., 2014).

In the realm of psychological research on intellectual humility (IH), aspects of related concepts like humility and insight are explored. This exploration draws evidence from areas such as cognitive biases. According to Samuelson et al. (2014), research into intellectual Virtues and Vices, the implicit concept of intellectual humility was exposed to non-experts to directly investigate it. Implicit theories are mental constructs that individuals create and reside within their thoughts. These implicit theories also shape people's folk psychology. The implicit theory existing in the mind of a psychologist or philosopher often serves as the foundation for explicit theories developed through data collection and empirical testing.

Leadership is the ability to persuade individuals to achieve better outcomes for an organization or group (Brady, 2014). It is an influential process aimed at achieving specific goals, emphasizing the strategy of convincing a particular group of people to accomplish a defined objective (Stogdill, 1950). Leadership models offer specific leadership skills for application in particular situations or contexts. Three key models include: Managerial Grid: This model predicts leadership outcomes by focusing on a leader's commitment to their role and concern for others. The Four Framework Approach: This approach utilizes four fundamental themes to guide leadership behavior in specific settings. Situational Leadership: This model assists leaders in determining the appropriate coaching needed to support an employee in a given situation.

Katz's (1950) three-skill strategy outlines three fundamental personal competencies required for leadership: technical skills, human skills, and conceptual skills. The skills theory of leadership gained prominence with Robert Katz's essay, "Skills of an Effective Administrator," published in Harvard Business School in 1955.

Despite extensive research and numerous publications on the subject, scholars and practitioners have struggled to establish a precise and universally accepted definition of leadership and leadership theory (Gardner, 1990; Glass, 2022; Komives et al., 1998). Multiple interpretations of the term and numerous theories coexist among those dedicated to advancing leadership studies (Chemers, 1993; Gardner, 1990). According to Yukl (1998), adaptive leadership fosters collaboration between managers and stakeholders, creating a shared sense of leadership and allowing team members or employees to act as leaders when the situation requires, regardless of their position within the organization.

Literature Review

Grossmann and Brienza (2018) found that intellectual humility, acceptance of ambiguity, diverse opinions, and integrating viewpoints enhance social intelligence in political leaders, benefiting society. Dean-Morrison (2021) examined how intellectual humility positively influences leadership skills, decision-making, and crisis endurance in senior leaders. Doorn-Harder (2017) highlighted the role of intellectual humility in Coptic Orthodox Church leadership. Bolman and Deal (2003) discovered that both emotional and social intelligence contribute to leadership diversity, with a notable impact from social intelligence. Promsri (2021) found a strong positive association between social intelligence and change leadership among Thai executives.

Glass (2022) emphasized empathy and social awareness as essential for effective leadership. Zaccaro and Horn (2003) argued for the importance of social intelligence in understanding leadership. Balaghat and Pour (2014) linked social intelligence to relational leadership styles among Iranian high school administrators. Garg and Gera (2020) showed that social intelligence plays a mediating role in the impact of gratitude on leadership in academic institutions. Freeder (2019) revealed the role of social intelligence in political leadership change. Russell et al. (1988) emphasized thoughtfulness as an expected characteristic in female leaders. Mandell and Pherwani (2003) identified a predictive link between emotional-social intelligence and transformational leadership, with differences in emotional intelligence scores between male and female managers and their leadership styles.

Farwa et al. (2022) examined the eminence of leader humility for follower creativity during COVID-19. Leader humility in Pakistan positively influences follower creativity through self-efficacy, enhancing organizational innovation and social sustainability during COVID-19, showcasing the significance of social intelligence and intellectual humility in leadership skills. According to Asad et al. (2016), developing social intelligence and intellectual humility in addition to traditional leadership abilities is crucial for meeting the training demands of university librarians in Pakistan.

Manzoor (2015) examine how discriminatory behaviors and gender stereotypes in Pakistan's indigenous culture limit women's ability to advance in leadership roles by affecting their social intelligence, intellectual humility, and general leadership abilities. According to Muhammad et al. (2012), effective leadership practices have a favorable effect on organizational performance in Pakistan.

Significant elements influencing how leaders and employees evaluate their performance are observation, acknowledgment, and creative role modeling. In order for Pakistan to have competitive economic growth, Nomura (2019) addresses the growing need for socio-behavioral skills like intellectual humility and social intelligence in addition to technical abilities. In the light of above-mentioned literature following hypothetical model for current research is proposed.

Figure 1: Hypothetical Proposed Model for Current Research

Hypotheses

There is positive relationship between social intelligence, intellectual humility, and leadership skills among students’ political group members.

1. Social intelligence and intellectual humility predict leadership skills in students’ political group members.
2. Male members of student political groups and different groups or councils score higher on social intelligence, greater intellectual humility, and stronger leadership skills as compared to females.

Method

A total of 140 members of student political groups/ councils at the University of the Punjab, Lahore, were calculated using statistical criteria such as power analysis and desired confidence levels. Participants were chosen using a process that ensures random sampling, which involved in-person contact. Political affiliations were most likely determined from participant self-reporting in the questionnaire. This approach ensured a broad sample that was appropriate for examining the research objectives connected to political group membership.

Measures

Demographic Information Sheet

A demographic sheet includes questions about gender, student political group/council membership, and role in the group/council.

Tromso Social Intelligence Scale (TSIS)

The Tromso Social Intelligence Scale, developed by Silvera et al. (2001) at the University of Tromso, consists of 21 items. It comprises three subscales: social information processing (SP), social awareness (SA), and social skills (SS). Each item is rated on a 7-point likert scale, with 1 indicating the least and 7 the most accurate description. Eleven items are reverse-coded (2, 4, 5, 8, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 21). The subscales, social information processing (Cronbach's alpha = .81), social skills (Cronbach's alpha = .86), and social awareness (Cronbach's alpha = .79), demonstrate good internal consistency. Silvera et al. (2001) conducted the original development study for the Tromso Social Intelligence Scale, which demonstrated construct validity through factor analysis as well as convergent validity with related constructs in social intelligence research.

Comprehensive Intellectual Humility Scale (CIHS)

Krumrei-Mancuso and Rouse (2015) developed the Comprehensive Intellectual Humility Scale, a self-report test with 22 items. It comprises four subscales: Lack of Intellectual Overconfidence (6 items), Openness to Revising One's Viewpoint
(5 items), Independence of Intellect and Ego (6 items), and Respect for Others' Viewpoints (5 items). Participants rate items on a five-point Likert scale: 1 (strong disagreement) to 5 (strong agreement). Eleven items are reverse-coded (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 12, 16, 17, 18, 21, and 22). The final score is the sum of all points. The scale demonstrates good internal consistency with Cronbach's α = .75, high construct validity, and high test-retest reliability (p < .001) (Krumrei-Mancuso & Rouse, 2015).

Leadership Skills Questionnaire (LSQ)

The Leadership Skills Questionnaire, developed by Northouse (2021) from Western Michigan University, was used to measure leadership. This questionnaire assesses three main categories of leadership skills: administrative, interpersonal, and conceptual, with a total of 18 questions. Participants rate items on a Likert scale from 1 ("not true") to 5 ("extremely true"). The questionnaire demonstrated good reliability with a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.789 (Northouse, 2021). Further data on the validity of the instrument can usually be found in Northouse's (2021) original development or validation study at Western Michigan University.

Procedure

In order to collect data, authors' permission was sought before using scales, and participants were chosen based on their interest and availability. The objectives of the study were explained to participants, and each survey was given out with a signed consent form guaranteeing voluntary participation and anonymity. Surveys were gathered once the project was over, and SPSS 26.0 was used to evaluate the data. Getting consent to use scales, protecting participant privacy, and upholding the integrity of the research was among the ethical considerations.

Results

For study variables, descriptive statistics and reliability coefficients were used. Pearson Product Moment correlation between social intelligence, intellectual humility, and leadership skills among student political group members were investigated using correlation analysis.

The reliability of the Tromso Social Intelligence Scale was .87 with reliabilities of subscales were Social Information Processing (SP) .84; Social Skills (SS) .84 and Social Awareness (SA) .86. The reliability of the Comprehensive Intellectual Humility Scale was .85 with reliabilities of subscales Independence of Intellect and Ego (IIE) .78; Openness to Revising One’s Viewpoint (ORV) .80; Respect for Others’ Viewpoints (ROV) .64 and Lack of Intellectual Overconfidence (LIO) .68. The reliability of Leadership Skills Questionnaire was .84 with reliabilities of subscales Administrative Skills (AS) .61; Interpersonal Skills (IS) .67; Conceptual Skills (CS) .83. All variables have good Cronbach alpha reliabilities for the current study.

Table 1: Descriptive Characteristics and Reliability Scores of the Variables (N = 140)

Note. TSIS = Tromso Social Intelligence Scale; SP = Social Information Processing; SS = Social Skills; SA = Social Awareness; IIE = Independence of Intellect and Ego; ORV = Openness to Revising One’s Viewpoint; ROV = Respect for Others’ Viewpoints; LIO = Lack of Intellectual Overconfidence; CIHS = Comprehensive Intellectual Humility Scale; AS = Administrative Skills; IS = Interpersonal Skills; CS = Conceptual Skills; LSQ = Leadership Skills Questionnaire.

Correlation Among Social Intelligence, Intellectual Humility, and Leadership Skills in Student Political Group Members

Correlation analysis was used to find the relationship between the research variables and the demographic factors. Table 2 shows the results. All the assumptions were fulfilled. Results showed that leadership skills had a significant positive correlation with social intelligence (r = .75, p < .01) and intellectual humility (r = .76, p < .01) in student political group members. It indicated that a high degree of social intelligence and more intellectual humility level would increase the level of leadership skills in student political group members and vice versa. Results in Table 2 also showed that status in student political group/council is significantly correlated with the social information processing subscale (r = .19, p < .05) in student political group members.

Table 2: Pearson Product Moment Correlation Among Social Intelligence, Intellectual Humility, and Leadership Skills in Student Political Group Members (N = 140)

Note. SP = Social Information Processing; SS = Social Skills; SA = Social Awareness; SI = Social Intelligence; IIE = Independence of Intellect and Ego; ORV = Openness to Revising One’s Viewpoint; ROV = Respect for Others’ Viewpoints; LIO = Lack of Intellectual Overconfidence; IH = Intellectual Humility; AS = Administrative Skills; IS = Interpersonal Skills; CS = Conceptual Skills; LS = Leadership Skills.
**p < .01.

Predictability of Leadership Skills Among Student Political Groups Members

It was proposed that social intelligence and intellectual humility will be predictors of leadership skills in student political group members. To test this hypothesis stepwise regression was run.

Table 3: Hierarchical Regression Results for Predicting Leadership Skills (N =140)

Note. MSPG = Member of Student Political Group; SG/C = Status in Group/ Council
*p < .05. **p < .01.

Results indicated that the overall model was significant. Examination of beta values indicated that gender, MSPG, SG/C, and family type were not significant predictors of leadership skills in student political group members, so these variables were excluded by SPSS. Residential area (β = 2.91, p > .05) was a significant predictor of leadership skills. Social intelligence (β = .27, p > .01) and intellectual humility (β = .35, p > .01) were also significant predictors of leadership skills in student political group members. This model explains a 68% variance in social intelligence, intellectual humility, and leadership skills in student political group members.

Gender Differences Across Student Political Groups Members

It was tentatively described that there would be a significant disparity in gender in social intelligence, intellectual humility, and leadership skills in student political group members. To investigate this hypothesis, an independent sample t-test was conducted.

Table 4: Gender Differences Across Social Intelligence, Intellectual Humility, and Leadership Skills Among Student Political Group Members (N = 140)

Note. *p < .05, **p < .01.

There were non-significant differences in male and female students' social intelligence scores (t = -.60; p = .54), male and female students' intellectual humility scores (t = -.01; p = .98), and male and female students' leadership abilities (t = -.30; p = .75).

Leadership Skills Among Members of Student Political Groups

It was predicted that the leadership skills of the members of the student political group would differ significantly. Using a one-way ANOVA, this hypothesis was examined. The findings showed that, except for interpersonal skills, there was no statistically significant difference between the groups as evaluated by a one-way ANOVA for leadership skills. Post hoc analysis was only performed when the F-value was significant to examine group differences for the relevant variables (see Table 5).

Table 5: One-Way Analyses of Variance for Leadership Skills in Members of Students of Political Group (N = 140)

Note. PEDM = Pashtoon Education Development Movement, IJT = Islamic Jamiat Talba.

It was found that there was nonsignificant mean difference among PEMD, Baloch Council, Punjab Council, IJT, and PUSF in Administrative Skills, Conceptual Skills, and Leadership Skills. The results presented in Table 5 indicated Punjab Council and Baloch Council had significant means differences in the interpersonal skills dimension of leadership skills. Posthoc results showed higher mean difference value on Islamic Jamiat Talbah (2.88) as compared to Pushtoon Education Development Movement (-1.00), and PUSF (.59) on interpersonal skills.

Discussion

Leadership skills were significantly correlated with both social intelligence and intellectual humility, highlighting the importance of these factors in enhancing leadership effectiveness within the Pakistani context. This finding aligns with prior research in various contexts, including organizational senior and executive leaders (Dean-Morrison, 2021), teenage leadership organization members in high school (Jacquelin, 2017), university students (Bolman & Deal, 2003), and Thai executive managers (Promsri, 2021). Moreover, Farwa et al. (2022) emphasize leader humility's positive impact on follower creativity during COVID-19 in Pakistan, highlighting the role of social intelligence and intellectual humility in fostering innovation. Asad et al. (2016) advocate integrating these qualities with traditional leadership skills for university librarians. Manzoor (2015) discuss cultural barriers affecting women's leadership in Pakistan, stressing the need for social intelligence and intellectual humility. Muhammad et al. (2012) and Nomura (2019) promote enhancing these skills for organizational performance and economic growth in Pakistan.

Findings indicated that social intelligence and intellectual humility significantly predict leadership skills in student political group members, supporting the study's assumption through stepwise regression analysis. Balaghat and Pour's (2014) research supported a positive correlation between social intelligence and managers' relational leadership styles, where social skills being the sole predictor. Leadership appears strongly influenced by social intelligence (Bolman & Deal, 2003). In addition, Farwa et al. (2022) highlight leader humility's role in fostering innovation through social intelligence and intellectual humility in Pakistan. Asad et al. (2016) stress integrating these qualities with traditional leadership skills for university librarians. Intellectual humility-related attributes were found to positively impact decision-making, adaptive leadership, and organizational resilience (Dean-Morrison, 2021), emphasizing the importance of social intelligence as a vital component of leadership (Jermier, 1993). The study suggests that social intelligence is a robust predictor of adult leadership abilities (Garg & Gera, 2020). Furthermore, demographic factors such as gender, MSPG, SG/C, and family type did not significantly predict leadership skills, in line with prior research showing no variation in leadership styles or emotional-social intelligence abilities between male and female leaders (Jacquelin, 2017). In Pakistani contexts, Manzoor (2015) highlight how societal barriers affect women's leadership, underscoring the importance of social intelligence and intellectual humility.

Results showed nonsignificant gender differences in social intelligence, intellectual humility, or leadership skills between men and women. This finding led to the rejection of the study's hypothesis, which aligns with previous research (Jacquelin, 2017; Mandell & Pherwani, 2003). The one-way ANOVA revealed a significant difference only in interpersonal leadership skills, with no significant variation in administrative and conceptual leadership skills among PEMD, Baloch Council, Punjab Council, IJT, and PUSF. The unique finding was a significant difference in interpersonal skills, possibly due to cultural distinctions among student political group members in Pakistan. Farwa et al. (2022) and Asad et al. (2016) highlight the significance of integrating social intelligence and intellectual humility in leadership contexts Members of the Punjab and Baloch councils exhibited higher social intelligence, likely because they were more socially interactive and engaged in campus activities.

Limitations and Suggestions

This study used instruments created in a Western setting, even though it included Pakistani literature to increase relevance. This shows how important it is to investigate indigenous viewpoints to guarantee local applicability and validity. The study solely used a quantitative approach, offering numerical data without explicit variable justifications. The inclusion of qualitative research methods could enhance the study. The correlational research methodology used precludes establishing causality; experimental research designs would be needed for causal analysis. The study's findings could not be extended beyond the University of the Punjab due to the sample's specific composition, resulting in low external validity. Data collected through self-report questionnaires may be subject to bias, particularly social desirability bias, potentially impacting the results. The study focused on only three variables (social intelligence, intellectual humility, leadership skills), neglecting other potential predictors of leadership skills in the context of Pakistan's socio-demographic conditions. The study did not account for all relevant environmental, situational, and personal factors affecting members of the political group/council.

Implications

The study contributes to indigenous literature by emphasizing the importance of social intelligence, intellectual humility, and leadership skills in student political group members. Further research is needed to gain a deeper understanding of these variables and their implications. This study underscores the significance of discussing leadership skills in universities and addressing the consequences of students lacking these skills in Pakistan's diverse community, where student concerns are often overlooked. The findings of this study can help us understand how the absence of intellectual humility, interpersonal skills, and leadership affects student political group members during stressful events in their lives. Additionally, this research can help address rivalry between student groups in challenging situations. According to the study, universities should implement supportive regulations to protect and assist student political group members.

Conclusion

The study's results in the Pakistani context indicated significant relationships between social intelligence, intellectual humility, and leadership skills among members of student political groups. These relationships were found to be robust predictors of leadership effectiveness, in line with international research (Dean-Morrison, 2021; Bolman & Deal, 2003; Promsri, 2021). Leader humility was found to be beneficial for innovation and organizational resilience in the face of challenges such as COVID-19 (Farwa et al., 2022). Recommendations were made to incorporate these attributes into the traditional leadership education of university librarians and to remove cultural barriers that hinder women's leadership (Asad et al., 2016; Manzoor, 2015). The study's findings indicate that demographic factors like gender, membership in student political groups, affiliations with councils, and family type do not significantly predict leadership skills. This highlights equitable leadership capabilities across these variables in the Pakistani context. Variations in interpersonal leadership skills between different student council members suggest that culture has an impact on leadership dynamics. This research fills a local gap by placing international findings within Pakistan's organizational and cultural framework.

References

Asad, A., Khan, H., Hamida, H., & Begum, B. (2016). Training needs analysis on leadership skills of university librarians in Pakistan. PUTAJ-Humanities and Social Sciences, 23(2), 87-102.

Balaghat, M., & Pour, A. A. (2014). The relationship between social intelligence and leadership styles of high school administrators. Educational Management Administration and Leadership, 42(2), 247-266.

Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (2003). Reframing Organizations: Artistry, Choice, and Leadership (3rd ed.). Jossey-Bass.

Brady, J. S. (2014). The impact of multicultural education training for pre-service teachers (Unpublished doctoral dissertation), Walden University.

Chemers, M. M. (1993). An integrative theory of leadership. In M. M. Martin & R. Ayman. Contemporary issues in leadership (5th ed.) (pp. 163-181). Boulder, CO: Westview.

Dean-Morrison, M. L. (2021). COVID-19, Organizational leadership and the Influence of Intellectual Humility. University of Charleston-Beckley.

Farwa, A., Shahid, M., Kanwal, I, Khan., Madeeha, G. Q., & Mahendra, F. (2022). Eminence of Leader Humility for Follower Creativity During COVID-19: The Role of Self-Efficacy and Proactive Personality. Frontiers in Psychology, 12.

Freeder, D. (2019). Thinking with feeling: social intelligence and leadership (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Technology Sydney. https://opus.lib.uts.edu.au/bitstream/10453/140942/1/01Front.pdf

Gardner, J. W. (1990). On leadership. The Free Press.

Garg, N., & Gera, S. (2020). Gratitude and leadership in higher education institutions: Exploring the mediating role of social intelligence among teachers. Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education, 12(5), 915-926.

Glass, K. (2022). Practicing leadership skills in student associations. University of St. Augustine for Health Sciences.

Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence: Why it matters more than IQ. Bantam Books.

Grossmann, I., & Brienza, J. (2018). The Strengths of Wisdom Provide Unique Contributions to Improved Leadership, Sustainability, Inequality, Gross National Happiness, and Civic Discourse in the Face of Contemporary World Problems. Journal of Intelligence, 6(2), 22.

Harrysson, M., Metayer, E., & Sarrazin, H. (2012). How ‘social intelligence’ can guide decisions. McKinsey Quarterly, 4(1), 81-89.

Katz, D., Maccoby, N., & Morse, N. C. (1950). Productivity, supervision, and morale in an office situation. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Institute of Social Research.

Klein, S. B., & Kihlstrom, J. F. (1998). The self-as-schema construct in social cognition: Revisiting the problem of intentionality. Psychological Bulletin, 124(1), 47-59.

Komives, S. R., Lucas, N., & McMahon, T. R. (2009). Exploring leadership: For college students who want to make a difference. John Wiley & Sons.

Krumrei-Mancuso, E. J., & Rouse, S. V. (2015). The development and validation of the Comprehensive Intellectual Humility Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 98(2), 209-221. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2015.1068174

LeDoux, J. E. (1996). The emotional brain. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Mandell, B., & Pherwani, S. (2003). Relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership style: A gender comparison. Journal of Business and Psychology, 17, 387-404.

Mcelroy, S. E., Rice, K. G., Davis, D. E., Hook, J. N., Hill, P. C., Worthington, E. L., & van Tongeren, D. R. (2014). Intellectual Humility: Scale development and theoretical elaborations in the context of religious leadership. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 42(1), 19-30.

Muhammad, A., Liaqat, A., & Muhammad, M. M. (2012). How leadership behaviors affect organizational performance in Pakistan. Journal of Economics and Behavioral Studies. https://doi.org/10.22610/jebs.v4i6.335

Nomura, S. (2019). Pakistan: Skills Assessment for Economic Growth. Mimeo, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Promsri, C. (2021). Crisis leadership in a hotel industry during COVID-19 pandemic in Thailand. Cross Current International Journal of Economics, Management, Media Studies, 3(3), 29-34.

Russell, J. E., Rush, M. C., & Herd, A. M. (1988). An exploration of women's expectations of effective male and female leadership. Sex Roles, 18, 279-287.

Samuelson, P., Jarvinen, M., Paulus, T., Church, I., Hardy, S., & Barrett, J. (2014). Implicit theories of intellectual virtues and vices: A focus on intellectual humility. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 10(5), 389-406. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2014.967802

Silvera, D., Martinussen, M., & Dahl, T. I. (2001). The Tromsø Social Intelligence Scale, a self-report measure of social intelligence. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 42(4), 313-319.

Manzoor, S. (2015). Impact of indigenous culture on women leadership in Pakistan: How does indigenous culture of Pakistan restricts career progress and leadership abilities of females of Pakistan (Master thesis), Linnaeus University, Sweden.

Stogdill, R. M. (1950). Leadership, membership, and organization. Psychological Bulletin, 47(1), 1-14.

Taylor, S. E., & Cadet, J. L. (1989). The neurological underpinnings of social intelligence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(6), 971-990.

Thorndike, E. (1920). The reliability and significance of tests of intelligence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 11(5), 284-287.

Van Doorn-Harder, N. (2017). Leadership and Intellectual Humility in the Coptic Orthodox Church: Bishop Athanasius of Beni Suef (1962-2000) and the Papal Committee. Journal for the Study of Religion in Africa and its Diaspora, 3(1), 125-138.

Yukl, G. (1998). Leadership in organizations. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.

Zaccaro, S. J., & Horn, Z. N. (2003). Leadership theory and practice: Fostering an effective symbiosis. The Leadership Quarterly, 14(6), 769-806.

Received 31 October 2023
Revision received 5 July 2024