Nothing is Aversive; It’s About the Quest for Meaning: Addressing the Role of Primary Appraisals for Association Between Locus of Control and Stress Among Media Professionals

The transactional model of stress suggested that appraisal process of individuals highly influence their stress response. Media professionals are very likely to accumulate stress while covering aversive events. However, being able to deal with depressive cognitions is among one of the functions of locus of control. The current study was designed to examine the moderating effect of primary appraisal for the relationship between locus of control and stress among media professionals. Primary appraisals include individual’s evaluation of stressful situations concerning its significance for their well-being. The study was conducted on a national level sample of 625 media professionals. Along with demographic sheet, data was collected on Locus of Control Scale-Revisited (Suárez-Álvarez et al., 2016), Depression, Anxiety, Stress Scale (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995), and Primary Appraisal/ Secondary Appraisal (Gaab et al., 2005). Results indicated that external locus of control has positive whereas internal locus of control has negative association with stress. The moderation analysis showed that significant moderating effect of harm/loss appraisal, threat appraisal, and challenge appraisal for external and internal locus of control respectively. It is concluded that use of harm/loss and threat appraisal increases stress whereas challenge appraisal is effective in decreasing stress with individuals using either internal or externa locus of control.

Media professionals are first responders who are consistently being exposed to traumatic events that involves mental/physical harm (Seely, 2019). While performing their job responsibilities, media professionals are directly (covering in fields) or indirectly (reporting in newsroom) exposed to traumatic events including natural disasters, mob activities, motor vehicle accidents, crimes, sexual assault, and other stressful/traumatic incidents. Studies reported that 86% of media professionals exposure stress inducing events due to their nature of job (Dworznik, 2018; Feinstein et al., 2014; Flores-Morales et al., 2012; Newman et al., 2003; Pyevich et al., 2003). Consequently, due to the repetitive and frequent exposure to traumatic events, media professionals may experience psychological distress. Studies indicated that a substantial group of media professionals developed symptoms of mental health illness and require psychological intervention (Browne et al., 2012; Newman et al., 2003). On the other hand, belief about controllability of the stressor enables number of media professionals to counter development of subsequent mental health symptoms. The objective of the present research is to examine the differential role of internal and external locus of control in development of mental health symptoms among media professionals.
Being able to deal with depleted coping resources, depressive thoughts, and helplessness are a function of an individual’s locus of control (Growth et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2014). According to Rotter (1966) generic belief about controllability, locus of control (LoC) is referred to the extent to which individuals’ feel control over events that may affect them. LoC can be driven externally or internally and, depending on which is used, may result in symptom exacerbation or reduction (Schofield & Hotulainen, 2004). An individual who is driven internally tends to be guarded from unenviable psychological health outcomes, as an individual can adapt and tap into the reservoir of coping that indicates use of internal resilience (Huebner et al., 2001). Externally driven individual on the contrary, belief in luck, chance, or other powerful external forces that may lead to lower life satisfaction and higher level of anxiety, depression, and other mental health symptoms. Recent evidence indicated that with trauma history, externally driven individuals are more vulnerable to develop post-traumatic stress symptoms, which may cascade into other mental health symptoms (Inozu et al., 2012; Zhang et al., 2014). Further, the transactional model of stress and coping (Goh et al., 2010) instigate that the way individuals interpret an aversive event is an essential key factor that may partially account for higher level of stress. In confirmation to the above mentioned theoretical and empirical literature, we hypothesized that internal locus of control is negatively associated with stress whereas external locus of control is positively associated with stress.
The quest for meaning is considered by number of behaviour theorists as adaptive response in coping with adversity over the life span (Sherrer, 2011). The way an individual evaluates or appraises stressful event may have implications for an individual’s coping capacity, emotional response, and consequently for negative or positive adaptation to adverse events. The appraisal process generates emotions, and the stressful situation is appraised as harmful, threatening, or challenging. Challenge appraisal of stressful event elicits positive emotion, while harmful and threatening appraisal elicits negative emotions (Compas et al., 2014). Cognitive appraisals describe the process that accounts for the discrepancy between exposure to traumatic events and psychological resources consequently effecting mental health. A primary element of association between traumatic event and negative health symptoms is the cognitive appraisal of an event (Smith & Ellsworth, 1985). The present research is designed to examine the moderating effect of cognitive appraisal strategies including harm/loss, threat, and challenge.
Primary appraisal accredits meaning to a specific transaction which determines the significance of individuals’ well-being. This transaction may be evaluated as positive (employing a positive effect on individuals' well-being), stressful (signify threat, harm/loss, or challenge), or irrelevant (no significance to individuals' well-being). The primary interest of the model is on the stressful transactions as other two transactions do not evoke the need for subsequent coping and negative emotions. A stressful transaction may further be appraised as producing substantial harm/loss, threat, or challenge (Oliver & Brough, 2002). Harm/loss entails loss, harm, or damage that has already been sustained including injury, loss of friendship, or loss of self-esteem. Threat appraisal includes anticipated loss, harm, or damage. Challenge appraisal is the judgment involving the assessment of whether a transaction holds the potential for mastery and the potential for harm. Thus, in challenge appraisal, the appraisal of a sense of control and stakes are fused and hence, the stressful encounter is seen as challenging but not exceeding one's resources. Threat and harm/loss appraisal provoke negative emotions as fear, anger, and resentment. On the contrary challenge appraisal, entails the potential for growth and rewards when adequate coping resources are available, and entails positive emotions for instance eagerness, enthusiasm (Lazarus, 2006). Following the conceptualization of primary appraisals, it is assumed that different appraisal strategies differently influence the relationship between LOC and stress among media professionals.
The present study designed to examine the vulnerability of an individual to develop mental health symptoms depending on one’s way to attribute environmental events. Further, the main objective of the study is to find out the moderating effect of cognitive appraisals for the relationship between LOC and stress. The following hypotheses were phrased in accordance with the present study objectives:

1. Harm/loss and threat appraisals strengthen the positive relationship between external locus of control and stress.
2. Harm/loss and threat appraisals strengthen the negative relationship between internal locus of control and stress.
3. Challenge appraisal weakens the positive relationship between external locus of control and stress.
4. Challenge appraisal strengthens the negative relationship between internal locus of control and stress.

Method

Participants

The study sample comprised of nationally representative large sample of media professionals including both female (n = 185) and male (n = 440) participants were approached from different press clubs and media houses. The age of the participants ranged from 20 years to 61 years (M±SD = 34.21± 8.21). Participants average monthly income was 58.38 thousand Pakistani rupees, and the participants were having job experience ranging from 1 year to 43 years (M±SD = 10.3±27.29). The participants covering fashion-oriented news were excluded from the study. Intuitional approvals were obtained before approaching media professionals for informed consent to participate in the present study.

Instruments

In present study, data was collected on the following instrument.

Locus of Control-Revisited (LOC-R)

Locus of control  was measured by using LOC-R (Suárez-Álvarez et al., 2016), a self-report measure containing 23 items that assess the way individual attributes the environmental events either as internal or external. The scale has two dimensions including external locus of control (ELOC), and internal locus of control (ILOC). The ELOC comprised of 13 items which assesses the individual belief that environmental events are contingent on individual’s own behaviour. The ILOC comprised of 10 items that assesses the individual belief that the environmental events are outside their power, dependent on chance, luck, powerful others, and fate. Media professionals were asked to indicate the extent to which they agree on a 5-point Likert scale with each given statement (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). Internal consistency as an indicator of reliability resulted in an overall good homogeneity that is Cronbach’s alpha for ILOC a = .87, and for ELOC a = .85 (Suárez-Álvarez et al., 2016). Cronbach’s alpha indicated good reliability of the instrument (a = .93, & .94 for external, and internal locus of control respectively) for sample of the present study.

Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21)

 DASS-21 (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995) was used to measure stress, a self-report instrument which measures negative emotional state of anxiety, stress, and depression. For the present study only the subscale consisting of items to measure stress of the participants was used.  The stress subscale measures chronic arousal for instance difficulty relaxing, nervous arousal, being upset/agitated, impatient, and irritable. Media professionals respond on 4-point Likert scale on given statements according to which they have experienced each state over the last week. The cake has good estimates of reliability ranging from .82 to .97 in both clinical and non-clinical samples (Henry & Crawford, 2005). Cronbach’s alpha indicated good reliability of the instrument (a = .88 for stress) for sample of the present study.

Primary Appraisal/Secondary Appraisal Scale (PASA)

The Primary Appraisal/Secondary Appraisal Scale (Gaab et al., 2005) is a self-assessment consisting of 24 items to assess primary and secondary appraisals prior to the cognitive task. For present study, data was collected on subscales of primary appraisal. The primary appraisal includes subscale harm/loss appraisal, threat appraisal, and challenge appraisal. The harm/loss appraisal is comprised of 8 items that accesses any kind of loss, harm, or damage that has already been sustained, including loss of self-esteem, injury, or loss of friendship. The threat appraisal comprised of 4 items that accesses anticipated loss, harm, or damage. The 4 items of the challenge appraisal assess the potential for mastery or gain, and the potential for harm. Participants were asked to respond with their thoughts about the upcoming task on a 6-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 6 = strongly agree). Items 1, 6, 7, 9, 10, and 22 were formulated negatively. The PASA scale has good estimates of Cronbach alpha ranging from a = .71-.83 for primary scale (Gaab et al., 2005). Alpha reliability indicated good estimates of the instrument (a = .91, .86, & .83 for harm/loss, threat, and challenge appraisal; respectively) for sample of the present study.

Personal and Professional Demographic Profile

A comprehensive demographic profile containing question for personal and professional information was developed for the present study. The profile included personal demographic (i.e., age, monthly income) and work-related information (including job experience).

Results

Preliminary analysis consisted of correlation between study variables and demographics. The results showed that monthly income has positive correlation with job experience (r = .19, p < .01), ILOC  (r = .11, p < .01), and challenge appraisal (r = .14, p < .01) but is negatively associated with threat appraisal (r = -.14, p < .01), stress   (r = -.16, p < .01), ELOC, and harm/loss appraisal (r = -.12, p < .01). ELOC has positive association with stress (r = .69, p < .01), harm/loss appraisal, and threat appraisal (r = .71, p < .01) but is negatively associated with challenge appraisal (r = -.74, p < .01). On the other hand, ILOC has negative association with stress, harm/loss appraisal, and threat appraisal (r = -.68, r = -.74, r = -.67 respectively; p < .01) but positively correlated with challenge appraisal (r = .75, p < .01). Harm/loss appraisal has positive association with threat appraisal and stress (r = .73, r = .69 respectively; p < .01) but has negative association with challenge appraisal (r = -.77, p < .01). Finally, threat appraisal is positively associated with stress (r = .68, p < .01) but has negative association with challenge appraisal (r = -.87, p < .01). The correlation of stress with locus of control and primary appraisal (harm/loss appraisal, threat appraisal, and challenge appraisal) supported our assumption.
The purposed moderation model was tested empirically to estimate specific conditional effects. The analyses were performed by using model 1 of the process macro (V= 3.5; Hayes, 2019) in SPSS version 26. The model allows testing the interaction between one predictor and one moderator. Two parallel moderation models (one with each LOC as predictor) were tested for moderating effect of the each of the three primary appraisals.  Controlling for the effect of demographics, the moderation analyses with internal locus of control as predictor, primary appraisals as moderators, and stress as outcome includes 3 moderation models (a) external locus of control à harm/loss appraisal à stress, (b) external locus of control à threat appraisal à stress, (c) external locus of control à challenge appraisal à stress. The same moderation models were tested with internal locus of control as predictor, cognitive appraisal (harm/loss, threat, and challenge appraisal) as moderator, and stress as outcome.

Table 1
Moderating Role of Primary Appraisals For The Effect of External Locus of Control in Predicting Stress (N = 625)

*p < .05, **p < .01.

 The result presented in Table 1, suggested that media professional who attribute environmental events as external and who translate traumatic incidents into harm/loss or threat appraisal, they are inclined toward higher levels of stress. The interaction terms showed that harm/loss as well as threat appraisal positively moderated the effect of external locus of control in predicting stress. These moderation models explained a total of 59% and 58% variance respectively in stress. The pattern of slopes indicated that positive association between external locus of control and stress is weak at low level of harm/loss and threat appraisals. As the level of harm/loss and threat appraisal increases from low to medium the positive associations between external locus of control and stress are increased. The positive associations between external locus of control and stress are highest at the highest level of harm/loss and threat appraisal. The mod graph (Figure 1a & b) clarifies that harm/loss and threat appraisals are increasing stress for the media professionals who rely on external locus of control.

Figure 1
Figure showing role of harm/loss appraisal (A), and threat appraisal (B) as moderator for the effect of external locus of control in predicting stress.

Table 2
Moderating Role of Primary Appraisals For The Effect of Internal Locus of Control in Predicting Stress (N = 625)

*p < .05, **p < .01.

Moderation model, presented in Table 2 estimated internal locus of control as predictor, primary appraisals as moderator, and stress as outcome. Finding indicates that internal locus of control negatively predicted stress whereas harm/loss and threat appraisals positively predicted stress. This suggested that use of internal locus of control decreases stress however using of harm/loss and threat appraisals increases stress. Additionally, the interaction term showed that harm/loss as well as threat appraisals negatively moderated the effect of internal locus of control on stress. These moderations explained a total of 58% and 55% variance in stress respectively. Further, the simple slope analysis (Figure 2a & b) elaborates moderating role of harm/loss and threat appraisals for internal locus of control in predicting stress. The simple slope analysis showed that the impact of internal locus of control on stress is weak at low level of harm/loss and threat appraisals. As the level of harm/loss and threat appraisals increases from low to medium, the negative impact of internal locus of control on stress is also increased. Finally, the negative impact of internal locus of control on stress is strongest at the highest level of harm/loss, and threat appraisals.

Figure 2
Figure showing role of harm/loss (A), and threat appraisal (B) as moderator for the effect of internal locus of control in predicting stress

Finally, results presented in Table 1 indicated that external locus of control positively predicted stress whereas challenge appraisal negatively predicted stress. The results in Table 2 described that both challenge appraisal and internal locus of control negatively predicted stress. This suggested that media professionals relaying on external are more vulnerable to incline stress, however use of challenge appraisal may tend to decease their stress. Additionally, the interaction term showed that challenge appraisal negatively moderated the effect of external locus of control whereas positively moderated the effect of internal locus of control on stress. These moderation models explain a total of 57% variance in stress. Further, the simple slope analysis elaborates moderating role of challenge appraisal for external and internal locus of control in predicting stress. The simple slope analysis (figure 3a & b) showed that the impact of external and internal locus of control on stress is strongest at low level of challenge appraisal. As the level of challenge appraisal increases from low to medium, the positive impact of external and negative impact of internal locus of control on stress is decreased. The positive impact of external and negative impact of locus of control on stress is lowest at the highest level of challenge appraisal. The mod graph (Figure 3a) further clarifies that use of external locus of control increases stress, however challenge appraisal works as protective factor. The graph shows that individuals using challenge appraisal to appraise a stressful situation are less likely to develop stress even when relying on external locus of control. Moreover, mod graph (Figure 3b) shows that challenge appraisal is more effective in deceasing stress for the media professionals who use internal locus of control however a combination of both high use of internal locus of control and challenge appraisal resulted in low levels of stress among media professionals.

Figure 3
Figure showing role of challenge appraisal as moderator for the effect of external (A), and internal (B) locus of control in predicting stress

Discussion

Media professionals bear spectator events that involve human suffering, whether covering individual atrocities or mass disasters, and at times are the direct targets of physical violence. In line of work, media professionals witness stressful/traumatic events that may include murder, executions, fire, mass casualties, and other trauma related events (Dworznik, 2018; Feinstein et al., 2014; Pyevich et al., 2003). Media professionals may experience work related traumatic content via prolonged and frequent exposure to user generated content including violent graphics and video footage (Osmann et al., 2021; Weidmann & Papsdorf, 2010). The persistent exposure to traumatic events may lead media professionals to develop psychological distress (Drevo et al., 2016). Despite repeated exposure to traumatic events, most of the media professionals did not exhibit stress. The belief about controllability of the stressor (locus of control) helps an individual to tackle accumulative effect of continued exposure to work related trauma exposure. The belief about controllability of the stressor may help individuals to deal and adjust with traumatic events. The findings of the present study illustrated that ILOC is negatively associated whereas ELOC is positively associated to stress. A study conducted on adolescents suggested that LOC is linked with mental health (Groth et al., 2019; Kesavayuth et al., 2020), discipline problems (Kee-Tony, 2003), and may predict suicidal risk (Loftis et al., 2019). Individuals using ELOC tended to have high emotional problems, anxiety, and depression under stressful circumstances (Aspelmeier et al., 2012; Huebner et al., 2001). On the contrary, individuals with ILOC have been found to deal effectively with aversive conditions, resulting in less psychological dysfunction (Chung et al., 2007)
Research on stress indicated that individual’s subjective interpretation of traumatic events in the aftermath may contributes to pathological response or positive adaptation (Ehlers & Clark, 2000). The findings of the current research showed that harm/loss, and threat appraisals are positively whereas challenge appraisal is negatively associated with stress. Colwell et al. (2011) conducted a study on police officers suggested that interpreting stressful events as harm/loss may help the officers to put the traumatic event behind them more quickly by using fatalism or avoidance coping but in a long run these passive coping strategies may lead officers to develop symptoms of post-traumatic stress. Another research found that individuals who reported post-traumatic stress symptoms were more likely to attribute stressful events as threatening compared to those who report low on stress symptoms (Gersons et al., 2000). Furthermore, number of research illustrated that individual who attributes stressful events as opportunity for growth experience less distress (Anshel, 2000; Violanti & Gehrke, 2004).
Another aim of the present study was to examine the moderating role of primary appraisals for the effect of LOC in predicting stress among media professionals. The research sought to identify the role of primary appraisals against negative consequences of ELOC and enhancing positive role of ILOC in handling with stress symptoms. As we anticipated, moderation analyses illustrated the significant interaction effect, indicating that challenge appraisal plays a protective role as a moderator in predicting stress.
Harm/loss as well as threat appraisals substantially strengthens the positive association between ELOC and stress. The interaction term elaborated that harm/loss or threat appraisal of stressful even by media professionals strengthen the positive effect of ELOC in predicting stress. Further conditional effect elaborated that the positive association between ELOC and stress is weaker for individuals attributing stressful events less as threating or harm/loss however as the media professionals attribute stressful event more as threating or ham/loss consequently resulting in higher level of stress. The mod graph (Figure 1a & b) clarifies that harm/loss and threat appraisals are increasing stress for the media professionals who rely on ELOC. Numerous studies related to stress reported that threat, centrality, stressfulness, and harm/loss appraisals are related to burnout and stress among mental health workers exposed to traumatic events (Babore et al., 2020; Li et al., 2020; Man et al., 2020). In addition, a body of literature suggested that firefighters exacerbated post-traumatic stress symptoms found to be consistent to attribute environmental events as threatening (Wagner et al., 2010).
Finally, the model showed that challenge appraisal plays substantial role in decreasing stress with individuals using ILOC or ELOC. The interaction term elaborated that challenge appraisal weakens the positive relationship between ELOC and stress resulting in a substantial decrease in stress. Further conditional effect elaborated that use of challenge appraisal more effectively decreased stress at lower levels of ILOC in comparison to ELOC. It is manifested that challenge appraisal protect against adverse effects of traumatic exposure for media professional who are using more ELOC. The interaction between ILOC and challenge appraisal is complicated. It is evidenced that the challenge appraisal is more functional in reducing stress for media professional who are low on ILOC. This might be because media professionals who are employing a predominantly ILOC, they are effectively handling their stress and there is less room available for challenge appraisal (i.e., the floor effect). This is further confirmed from mod graph (Figure 3a & b) as the lowest level of stress is observed with high level of ILOC in combination with higher challenge appraisal. This suggest that media professionals with ILOC using high challenge appraisal are less vulnerable to develop mental health symptoms as compared to media professionals with low use of challenge appraisal. This suggests that intervention related to challenge appraisal are more effective to decrease stress for individuals with low as compared to high ILOC. The study results are in confirmation to the empirical literature suggesting that challenge appraisal and successful coping is associated with lower levels of stress (Chew et al., 2020; Mertens et al., 2020; Ungar et al., 2013).

Limitations and Recommendations

 The data was collected using self-report instruments that may result in non-response bias. Convenience sampling technique was used, and the results of the present research may not be generalized to conflict ridden areas of Pakistan as the sample includes media professionals form metropolitan areas including Lahore and Islamabad. Media professionals are more likely to develop health related symptoms due to their job’s nature. They are being exposed to unpleasant events, and this consistent exposure accumulates underlying pathologies. Understanding the risk factors may affect ontogeny of stress symptoms, and its significant in conceptualizing the acquisition and maintenance of stressful symptoms. Different coping strategies (including resilience, problem/emotion focused coping, sense of coherence) are used to tackle accumulative effect of continued/consistent exposure to traumatic events. Therefore, a multi-faceted model is needed to understand several factors that may affect the mental health among media professionals.

Implications

The findings present research will help to ensure healthy life and promote wellbeing of media professionals through suggesting protective factor. It will be helpful for designing interventions for rehabilitation of media professional affected by trauma exposure. Different training programs can be made for media professionals for making their settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable. Institutions can be made for promoting peace and build effective institutes for rehabilitation of trauma-stricken population.

Conclusion

 The theoretical and empirical literature showed that challenge appraisal plays a significant role in decreasing stress of media professional using either ILOC or ELOC. It suggested that the quest for meaning is more important than the attribution of a specific event. Consequently, exacerbate or reduce mental health symptoms of media professionals. Apart from this, by identifying those factors which promote high psychological wellbeing, an insight may be gained into the matter in order to facilitate mental health estimates.

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Received 16 August 2021
Revision received 3 February 2022