A Comparative Analysis of Self-Esteem and Marital Satisfaction Across Employment Status and Gender

This study investigates the self-esteem and marital satisfaction outcomes associated with employment statuses, drawing on the perspectives of role accumulation theory and role strain theory. For this purpose, a sample of 156 married individuals aged 18 to 60 years (M = 36, SD = 7.25) were recruited from various cities in Pakistan via an online survey. By administering the Couple Satisfaction Index (Funk & Rogge, 2007) and Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965), multiple comparisons have been made to assess the role of employment on marital relationship satisfaction and self-esteem. Consistent with the role accumulation hypothesis, employed men reported higher levels of marital satisfaction compared to their unemployed counterparts. Among women, the role strain theory received partial validation as marital satisfaction exhibited disparities between employed men and employed women. While men exhibited greater self-esteem than women, and employed individuals demonstrated higher self-esteem levels than their unemployed counterparts, the detailed comparative analysis did not yield any statistically significant differences in terms of self-esteem between employed and unemployed men or employed and unemployed women. The findings suggest that meaningful roles such as employment positively contribute to individuals' well-being. These findings provide new insights into the relationship between employment and psychological well-being, thereby aiding family counselors in addressing marital conflicts and providing valuable insights for employers seeking to promote work-life balance.

A growing body of research has extensively explored the consequences of women taking on multiple roles, particularly in terms of their well-being, encompassing facets such as marital satisfaction and self-esteem (see e.g., Honda et al., 2015; Nordenmark, 2004; Ruderman et al., 2002). On one side of the spectrum, juggling multiple roles can offer women a sense of purpose, social support, and financial independence, all of which can exert a positive influence on their mental health and overall well-being as highlighted in the role accumulation theory (Sieber, 1974). However, on the other side, attempting to manage and balance these multiple roles can also introduce stress, burnout, and role conflicts, which, in turn, can have detrimental effects on women's mental health and well-being, as described in role strain theory (Goode, 1960). This study seeks to explore the impact of assuming multiple roles, with a particular emphasis on employment, on individuals' self-esteem and marital satisfaction. Furthermore, this research aims to delve into gender-based distinctions concerning self-esteem and marital satisfaction, contingent upon employment status. The overarching goals of this study are to gain insights into the intricate dynamics through which the assumption of various roles, especially employment, can impact self-esteem and marital satisfaction. These aspects, namely relationships and self-esteem, are recognized as pivotal dimensions within the broader domain of well-being (Diener & Diener, 1995; Du et al., 2017).

The relationship between assuming multiple roles and its impact on psychological and social well-being has been a central focus of numerous research studies. Among these investigations, findings have been mixed, with some studies reporting positive health outcomes associated with multiple roles, while others have identified negative consequences. For instance, a study conducted by Ahrens and Ryff (2006) revealed a positive association between engaging in multiple roles and experiencing higher levels of psychological well-being. They measured well-being using the Psychological Well-Being Scale by Ryff and Keyes (1995) which measures six dimensions of well-being including positive relationships with others, self-acceptance, autonomy, personal growth, environmental mastery, and purpose in life. The roles include being a spouse, a parent, employment, religious participation, friendship, voluntariness, membership of social organizations, and caregiving.

In a similar study, Honda et al. (2015) investigated the influence of assuming multiple roles on psychological distress within the context of Japanese workers in Japan. The study categorized participants into four distinct groups based on their marital status, whether they had children or not, their involvement in caregiving roles, and their employment status. The noteworthy finding of this study was that individuals who assumed more than three roles experienced lower levels of psychological distress when compared to those with only one role. This trend held true for both men and women, indicating a potential positive effect of engaging in multiple roles on psychological well-being within this particular population.

Kang and Jang (2020) examined the effect of multiple roles on depressive symptoms among women in Korea. The roles included employment, homemaker, spouse, parent, and caregiver. They found that employment, homemaking, and spousal roles were negatively associated with depressive symptoms while caregiving role was positively associated with depressive symptoms. Parenting role was not found to be significantly associated with depressive symptoms. Overall, the number of roles was associated with decreased depressive symptoms. Their findings suggest that having multiple roles was associated with decreased psychological distress as compared to having fewer roles. Among both men and women, the presence of childrearing and caregiving roles for elderly persons in addition to their employment roles was associated with less psychological distress compared to those who have only employment roles.  Sinha (2017) examined the psychological well-being of working and homemaker women from India and found that employed women reported better psychological well-being as compared to homemaker women. However, these employed women perceived lower social support as compared to their unemployed counterparts. Similar findings have been reported by Ota (2006) regarding Japanese women who perceived multiple roles as being associated with greater psychological well-being.

Concerning self-esteem, literature offers a complex perspective. While recent literature regarding the influence of multiple roles on self-esteem is very limited, some past research, such as that by Miller et al. (1991) suggests that assuming multiple roles can indeed elevate women's self-esteem, especially when these roles are personally fulfilling and provide a sense of accomplishment. Additionally, Jetten et al. (2015) discovered a positive correlation between belonging to multiple groups and self-esteem. Similarly, Ruderman et al. (2002) observed a positive effect of assuming multiple roles on the self-esteem and well-being of managerial women. However, researchers like Reitzes and Mutran (1994) found no significant influence of role accumulation on self-esteem. Nevertheless, there is no evidence to support a negative association between multiple roles and self-esteem.

When it comes to marital satisfaction, the literature reveals a mixed picture. On one hand, certain studies, such as Helms et al. (2010), have suggested that women who assume multiple roles may experience heightened levels of marital satisfaction. This phenomenon could be attributed to the idea that having multiple roles allows women to develop a more well-rounded sense of identity and provides them with additional opportunities for socializing and building relationships beyond their marriage. However, contrasting findings have also emerged, indicating that attempting to balance multiple roles can introduce conflict and strain into the marital relationship, potentially diminishing marital satisfaction. This effect appears to be more pronounced among couples who adhere to traditional ideologies and gender roles (Aida & Falbo, 1991; Çetinkaya & Gençdoğan, 2014).

Theoretical Basis of the Present Study

The role accumulation theory, also referred to as the role expansion theory, proposed by Sieber (1974), is a sociological and psychological concept that posits that individuals can experience enhanced overall well-being by occupying a greater number of roles in their lives. According to this theory, assuming multiple roles, such as those of a parent, spouse, worker, friend, and volunteer, can offer individuals several potential benefits. These benefits may include a heightened sense of purpose, a more well-rounded identity, increased social support, and greater financial stability. In turn, these factors can contribute to improved psychological well-being and even have positive effects on an individual's physical health. The theory of role accumulation is often applied within the context of gender roles, with a particular focus on the various roles that women juggle as caregivers, professionals, and family members. Women frequently find themselves managing multiple roles simultaneously, a situation that can contribute to feelings of stress and burnout. Nevertheless, the theory suggests that embracing a diverse array of roles can potentially lead to improved psychological well-being and overall life satisfaction (Sieber, 1974). Importantly, this theory extends beyond gender and posits that the advantages of occupying multiple roles are not exclusive to women. Men and individuals from diverse cultural and socio-economic backgrounds can also experience benefits from assuming multiple roles. However, it's worth noting that the theory doesn't imply that all individuals who hold multiple roles will automatically enjoy these benefits. The specific roles being assumed, as well as an individual's own values, priorities, and cultural context, all play crucial roles in determining the impact of role accumulation on their well-being. In essence, the theory underscores the complexity of the relationship between roles and well-being and highlights the need for a nuanced understanding of how various factors intersect in different individuals' lives.

Role strain theory, as proposed by Goode (1960), is a sociological concept that delves into the stress and tension experienced by individuals when they find themselves unable to meet the expectations and demands associated with the various roles they occupy in society. This theory suggests that individuals are often expected to play multiple roles, encompassing responsibilities such as being a parent, employee, student, friend, and community member. However, these roles may frequently conflict with one another. According to the theory, when an individual's roles generate conflicting demands, it can give rise to a range of adverse outcomes. These may include emotional distress, physical symptoms, and a decline in job and academic performance. Additionally, this role strain can manifest feelings of guilt, shame, and frustration, and it can also strain relationships with others, both personally and professionally.

Role strain theory can indeed be extended to the realm of marital relationships, as demonstrated in studies such as those by Quittner et al. (1998) and Whitsett and Land (1992). Within a marriage, each partner is typically tasked with fulfilling multiple roles, which may include being a spouse, parent, caregiver, and worker, among others. These diverse roles can often generate conflicting demands and expectations, giving rise to role strain within the context of the relationship. For instance, consider a scenario in which one partner serves as the primary breadwinner and is also responsible for household tasks. This individual may encounter role strain as they grapple with the demands of both roles, attempting to balance their career responsibilities with domestic duties. Similarly, if one partner is primarily responsible for childcare, they may experience role strain as they endeavor to reconcile their parenting obligations with their personal needs and aspirations.

Role strain within a marital relationship can have significant adverse consequences, as evidenced by earlier studies (Quittner et al., 1998; Whitsett & Land, 1992). This strain can manifest as communication difficulties, reduced relationship satisfaction, and, in severe cases, marital dissatisfaction and even divorce. The application of role strain theory to marital relationships underscores the critical importance of acknowledging and addressing the intricate and sometimes conflicting demands associated with the multitude of roles individuals assume within the context of intimate partnerships. It highlights the necessity for ongoing communication, negotiation, and mutual support to effectively manage role strain and sustain healthy and fulfilling relationships.

Both role accumulation theory and role strain theory's application and outcomes depend on individual values and cultural contexts (Goode, 1960; Sieber, 1974). Factors such as women's economic dependency on men, entrenched gender roles, and societal attitudes toward women's employment can greatly influence the consequences of assuming multiple roles. While the role accumulation hypothesis has gained more support in recent years with increasing female workforce participation, the sociocultural landscape of Pakistan may shape the outcomes of multiple roles differently.

Traditional Gender Roles in Pakistan

The family structure in Pakistan is deeply entrenched in cultural, religious, and traditional values, which profoundly shape the roles and responsibilities assigned to men and women within the family unit. Within this framework, decision-making authority for economic and external family matters typically rests with male elders, such as fathers or grandfathers, while female elders, such as mothers or grandmothers, assume responsibility for internal affairs, including meal preparation, childcare, and domestic tasks (Nath, 2005). This structure perpetuates the patriarchal nature of Pakistani society, where men wield greater power and control compared to women (Habiba et al., 2016). Men are conventionally viewed as the main providers and protectors of the family, while women are anticipated to fulfill their roles in nurturing and overseeing household matters (Rehman & Hossain, 2024). This division of gender roles is deeply ingrained in society, to the extent that even young girls are socialized to accept and fulfill these roles as part of societal norms and expectations (Habiba et al., 2016).

Economically, the majority of the women work indoors by making and selling arts and crafts (Jabeen et al., 2020). Outdoor employment is still subjected to prejudice in some communities, although women's participation in the workforce has substantially increased, but is still low in comparison to international data on women's workforce participation (Javaid et al., 2020; Moulabuksh et al., 2022). Despite the enduring presence of the hierarchical and patriarchal family system in Pakistan, notable changes have been unfolding in recent years, largely propelled by the forces of globalization, modernization, and increased access to education (Iqbal & Mohiuddin, 2022). These shifts have ushered in a new era where women are increasingly inclined to pursue higher education and actively participate in the workforce, consequently instigating alterations in traditional gender roles and family dynamics. However, it's important to recognize that gender inequality and discrimination still persist in various forms within Pakistani society. While progress has been made, significant disparities remain in terms of opportunities, access to resources, and decision-making power between men and women. The traditional family system, deeply rooted in cultural and religious norms, continues to exert a substantial influence on the lives of many Pakistanis, shaping their perceptions of gender roles and expectations. This ongoing interplay between traditional values and evolving social forces underscores the complexity of gender dynamics in Pakistan, reflecting a society in transition where old traditions coexist with the changing aspirations and roles of women in contemporary life.

Given the shifting societal norms and attitudes, it is crucial to explore the impact of multiple roles such as employment through the frameworks of role accumulation and role strain theories. These theories can illuminate the complex dynamics faced by individuals, particularly women in Pakistan, who navigate traditional gender roles and patriarchal cultural attitudes that may undermine their autonomy. As gender roles continue to evolve, with increasing work flexibility and diverse family structures, it is essential to conduct updated research that examines how these factors intersect with psychological well-being. Addressing these gaps in the literature would contribute to a more nuanced and comprehensive understanding of the intricate relationship between roles and psychological well-being in our rapidly changing global landscape.

Rationale

Utilizing the role accumulation hypothesis and role strain theory as guiding frameworks, the present study aims to explore the relationship between assuming multiple roles and the levels of self-esteem and marital satisfaction. This investigation specifically concentrates on assessing the influence of the employment role on these outcomes. It is posited that women who are actively engaged in employment may potentially demonstrate higher levels of self-esteem but reduced marital satisfaction when compared to their non-employed counterparts. This proposition is grounded in the belief that employment offers women financial independence and an increased sense of purpose in their lives. However, it may also introduce added strain as they navigate the challenges of balancing career and family responsibilities, particularly within the framework of traditional gender roles in Pakistan.

Furthermore, this study aims to elucidate how gender plays a role in shaping the connection between assuming multiple roles and well-being outcomes. For example, this study examines the difference in the psychological impact of employment between men and women due to societal expectations and prevailing gender norms. Through the examination of these factors, the study illuminates how the adoption of multiple roles influences an individual's self-esteem and marital relationships. The present study tests the following hypotheses:

1. Employed women report higher levels of self-esteem and reduced marital satisfaction as compared to unemployed women.
2. Employed men report higher self-esteem and marital satisfaction as compared to unemployed men.
3. Employed women have lower marital satisfaction as compared to employed men.
4. Unemployed men have lower self-esteem and marital satisfaction as compared to unemployed women.

Method

Sample

Data were gathered online in the summer of 2021 from a sample of 156 married individuals from Pakistan, consisting of 78 women and 78 men (N = 156) with a mean age of 36 years (SD = 7.25). For men, the average age was 39 years (SD = 6.85) and for women, it was 32 years (SD = 5.83). The majority of participants (67%, n = 105) were employed including 23% women (n = 36) and 44% men (n = 69).

Measures

The following measures were used to assess the study constructs:

Self-Esteem Scale

Self-esteem was measured through a widely used Self-Esteem Scale by Rosenberg (1965). This 10-item scale employs a 4-point Likert scale (ranging from 0 to 3) to gauge individuals' self-perception. The item scores were summed, with certain items reversed before summing. Potential scores span from 0 to 30, with higher scores indicating elevated self-esteem. In the current study, the participants scored from 11 to 30 on the scale with a mean score of 20.87 (SD = 4.04). The scale demonstrated acceptable internal consistency for all 10 items in the current study (a = .78).

Couple Satisfaction Index

Funk and Rogge’s (2007) Couple Satisfaction Index (CSI-16) was used to measure the quality of marital relationships. The scale measures the level of happiness in one’s relationship, their feelings about the relationship, and the quality of their relationship. The scale involves a combination of response items that are rated on scales, including 15 items that follow a 6-point Likert-type format and one item that follows a 7-point scale. The total score is derived from the summation of all 16 items, with potential scores spanning from 0 to 81. A higher score signifies greater marital satisfaction. In the context of this study, participants obtained scores ranging from 4 to 81 on the scale, with an average score of 62.65 (SD = 16.67). The internal consistency of the scale was found to be excellent in the present study (a = .97).  

Procedure

Participants were recruited randomly through social media platforms including WhatsApp and Facebook by sending them a survey link. Five inclusion criteria questions were asked to confirm their eligibility for participation. Some of them include confirmation of their age i.e. 18 years and above, being in the existing marital relation for more than a year, and living with their current spouse in the same home. Some demographic information was collected about the participants’ age, sex, duration of the current marriage, and employment status. All the entries were received directly from the respondents into the database without any manual entry. Participants were informed about the purpose of the study and their informed consent was obtained by sharing the possible risks and benefits associated with participation in the current study.

Results

A one-way between-subject ANOVA was used with Tukey’s Honestly Significant Difference post hoc comparison test (Tukey’s HSD). In addition to these four groups, t-tests were run on the overall sample to compare the employment status and gender differences in self-esteem and marital satisfaction.

Table 1: Group Differences Based on Employment Status (N = 156)

Note. Marital Sat. = Marital Satisfaction.

The results from an independent sample t-test indicated no difference in marital satisfaction for employed and unemployed respondents in the overall sample as shown in Table 1 .

However, an ANOVA was conducted to compare the marital   satisfaction across employment status and gender. The result showed a statistically significant difference in mean marital satisfaction score between at least two groups, F (3, 152) = 6.42, p < .001 as shown in Table 2 . Contrary to the t-test result from Table 1 , the Tukey’s HSD post hoc comparison test indicates that for men, marital satisfaction was different for employed and unemployed men (Tukey’s HSD, p < .05). The results indicate that employed men (M = 67.68, SD = 12.0) reported significantly higher levels of marital satisfaction than unemployed men (M = 51.89, SD = 21.33) with as presented in Table 2 . In terms of gender differences in marital satisfaction, an independent sample t-test indicates that men reported significantly higher levels of marital satisfaction (M = 65.86, SD = 14.15) in comparison to women (M = 59.45, SD = 18.40, t(154) = 2.44, p < .05). However, the post hoc comparison test indicates that this gender difference was only significant for employed participants (Tukey’s HSD, p < .01), whereby marital satisfaction was significantly higher for employed men (M = 67.68, SD = 12.0) than employed women (M = 55.11, SD = 19.45). No gender difference in marital satisfaction was found between unemployed participants (p > .05).

Regarding self-esteem, an independent sample t-test shows that employed participants reported significantly higher levels of self-esteem than unemployed participants overall (see Table 1 ). However, an ANOVA indicated that both employment status and gender have a significant main effect on self-esteem, F (3, 152) = 4.30, p <.01 as shown in Table 2 . The post hoc comparison test indicated that there was no difference between employed and unemployed men in terms of their self-esteem, nor was there a difference between employed and unemployed women in their self-esteem.

In terms of gender difference in the levels of self-esteem, men reported higher levels of self-esteem (M = 21.73, SD = 3.97) as compared to women (M = 20.00, SD = 3.95) in the overall sample (t (154) = 2.73, p < .01). However, the post hoc comparison test indicated that self-esteem was significantly different only between employed men and unemployed women (Tukey’s HSD, p < .01) as shown in Table 2 . Employed men (M = 22.06, SD = 4.00) reported significantly higher levels of self-esteem as compared to unemployed women (M = 19.57, SD = 3.60). There was no difference in self-esteem between employed men and employed women as well as unemployed men and unemployed women.

Table 2: One Way ANOVA to Compare Marital Satisfaction and Self-esteem across Employment Status (N = 156)

Discussion

In general, it is evident that having multiple roles can lead to both positive and negative outcomes for women, and the specific results can be influenced by various individual, cultural, and situational factors. In the present study, it was clear that participants who were employed reported higher self-esteem levels compared to those who were unemployed. This observation aligns with Sieber's (1974) role accumulation hypothesis which suggests that having more roles can improve a person's social well-being. These findings echo those of Jetten et al. (2015) , who also reported positive self-esteem outcomes associated with multiple group membership. However, in the current study, this correlation was statistically significant only for men when gender differences were taken into account. It was expected that employed women would exhibit higher levels of self-esteem compared to their unemployed counterparts. Previous research by Ruderman et al. (2002) found a positive association between employment and self-esteem for women, while Miller et al. (1991) found a similar positive link between women's engagement in multiple roles and their self-esteem. The absence of a significant connection between employment and self-esteem among women in our study could be attributed to established gender roles in Pakistan, where men are traditionally expected to be the primary breadwinners (Rehman & Hossain, 2024 ). Men who are unable to fulfill this role may experience a decline in self-esteem, whereas women's self-esteem may remain unaffected by employment, as they are not traditionally expected to take on the primary breadwinner role (Nath, 2005 ). This could also be due to the undervaluation of women's financial contributions within Pakistani society (Moulabuksh et al., 2022 ), which necessitates societal awareness and reforms to acknowledge women's economic roles in households.

Regarding marital satisfaction, the study did not find a significant association between employment and overall marital satisfaction which was hypothesized otherwise. However, once gender differences were considered, it became apparent that employed men reported higher marital satisfaction than unemployed men. This aligns with the role accumulation hypothesis, indicating that taking on multiple roles can enhance men's social well-being. Past research has also shown that multiple roles are associated with higher levels of psychological well-being (Ahrens & Ryff, 2006 ) and lower levels of psychological distress (Honda et al., 2015 ; Kang & Jang, 2020 ).

For women, there was no significant connection between employment and marital satisfaction, suggesting that marital contentment might not be significantly impacted by their employment. Previous studies have found employed women to have higher psychological well-being but lower social support compared to unemployed women (Sinha, 2017 ). It's possible that employed women in our sample also experience lower social support, which could nullify the positive effects of employment on marital satisfaction.

The findings further revealed that employed women experienced lower marital satisfaction compared to employed men. This suggests that managing multiple roles may become overwhelming for women in Pakistani households, where the responsibilities of working women are not adequately integrated into domestic tasks. Men often continue to expect women to fulfill household chores regardless of their employment status. This aligns with the role strain theory proposed by Goode (1960) , which suggests that managing multiple roles can be challenging for women when traditional gender roles persist.

Limitations and Suggestions

     Despite the adequate sample size achieved for hypothesis testing, it is imperative to recognize that the sample may not fully represent the entirety of the married population in Pakistan. The use of convenience sampling further diminishes the broader applicability of our findings. Future research endeavors could benefit from employing larger, randomly selected samples to enhance the robustness and generalizability of our conclusions. Moreover, this study primarily focused on employment and spousal roles to examine the implications of role strain and accumulation theories on psychological well-being, specifically assessing dimensions such as self-esteem and marital relationship satisfaction. However, to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted nature of psychological well-being and the complex dynamics of multiple roles, it is imperative to incorporate additional dimensions such as parenting responsibilities and household chores. Furthermore, future investigations should consider assessing other dimensions of psychological well-being, including autonomy, personal growth, and purpose in life, to offer a more holistic depiction of the psychological outcomes associated with engaging in multiple roles.

Implications

Of particular significance is the study's focus on a Pakistani sample, characterized by traditional gender roles, a patriarchal social structure, limited employment opportunities, and challenges such as unsafe transportation and working environments. By shedding light on the psychological implications of engaging in multiple roles within this context, these findings offer valuable guidance for various stakeholders. For instance, family counselors can leverage these findings to better comprehend and address potential marital conflicts and relationship satisfaction issues stemming from the juggling of multiple roles. Employers and researchers exploring the border between work and family life can also benefit from our study's insights, gaining a deeper understanding of the psychological toll that work can exert on individuals as they strive to maintain a delicate balance between their professional and personal responsibilities.

Conclusion

The findings reveal a nuanced relationship between employment, self-esteem, and marital satisfaction, highlighting the contextual intricacies that shape these connections. The influence of employment on marital satisfaction in this study reveals a gender-specific pattern, with employed men reporting higher levels of marital satisfaction than unemployed men as well as employed women. These findings are in accordance with the notion that managing multiple roles can be beneficial for men's well-being. However, for women, the relationship between employment and marital satisfaction appears to be less pronounced. The observed disparities in marital satisfaction between employed men and women, coupled with the lower marital satisfaction among employed women, resonate with the principles of the role strain theory.

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Received 06 September 2023
Revision received 29 April 2024