Relationship Between Parenting Styles and Psychosocial Problems Among University Students

As individuals move from adolescence to adulthood, they confront life's challenges. This phase is crucial for university students, marked by newfound independence, academic pressures, and social complexities, impacting their psychosocial development. Parenting practices play a pivotal role in influencing their overall well-being and adaptation to life's demands. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the association between parenting styles and their impact on psychosocial problems among university students. The central hypothesis posited that the authoritative parenting style would demonstrate a negative correlation and serve as a negative predictor of psychosocial problems, while the converse would be true for the authoritarian and permissive styles. The participant pool consisted of 203 students, aged 18-26, comprising 95 males and 108 females, drawn from diverse universities in Karachi, Pakistan. To identify parenting styles, the researchers employed the Parenting Authority Questionnaire, while the Strengths and Difficulty Questionnaire was utilized to gauge dimensions of psychosocial problems. The results revealed a negative association between the authoritative parenting style and psychosocial problems, contrasting with a positive correlation observed in authoritarian parenting. The study identified authoritarian and authoritative mothers as significant positive and negative predictors of psychosocial problems, respectively. Notably, only authoritarian fathers emerged as significant positive predictors of psychosocial problems.

As individuals’ transition from teenage to adulthood, they face numerous challenges and changes in life. This transitional phase holds particular significance for university students, as they navigate newfound independence, academic pressures, and the complexities of social adaptation. As a result, this period is critical in terms of their psychosocial development. During this time, the influence of parenting practices becomes particularly significant, as parents continue to play a critical role in shaping their children's overall well-being and adjustment to life's demands. Along similar lines, Rousseau, a renowned philosopher (as cited in Delaney, 2005), argues that childhood development can impact an individual's sense of self-worth. Cognitive psychology also supports this idea, suggesting that even minor nuances in parenting style can have long-term effects in adulthood (Glausiusz, 2016).

Child behaviorists have long emphasized the significance of reinforcement patterns in shaping a child's behavior. Building upon this foundation, measures have been developed to analyze and identify behavioral patterns resulting from various parenting styles. Garcia and Serra's (2019) correlational study also contribute to this by concluding the expanded effects of various parenting styles on socialization outcomes in adolescents and adults. Additionally, psychoanalysis has made valuable contributions to understanding how parenting styles can have prolonged consequences on the development of personality in the child-parent relationship. Furthermore, Glausiusz’s (2016) cognitive study of childhood development has observed and analyzed models of parental approaches across different phases of life, examining the resulting consequences. While previous research has explored the impact of parenting styles on child development (Glausiusz, 2016; Nachoum et al., 2021; Grolnick & Pomerantz, 2009), relatively fewer studies have focused specifically on the psychosocial problems experienced by university students. By investigating this relationship, the current study aims to provide valuable insights into the potential effects of parenting styles on the psychosocial well-being of university students. Therefore, the current study attempted to investigate the relationship and impact of various parenting styles on psychosocial problems among university students.

Parenting Styles

Baumrind (1971) pioneered the study of parenting styles and was the first to identify these styles by using the tripartite model. This model was based on communication techniques, parental authority, and the care/warmth displayed by parents toward their children. These elements contributed to the emergence of distinct parenting approaches, such as permissive, authoritarian, and authoritative styles. Darling and Steinberg (1993) defined parenting style as a framework that encompasses a range of attitudes and behaviors exhibited by parents towards their children, ultimately creating an environment that shapes the parent-child relationship. It comprises goal-directed behaviors (child-rearing practices) and non-goal-directed behaviors (non-verbal communication). Baumrind (1971) also emphasizes that these parenting techniques may affect children's social skills, emotional regulation, and psychosocial issues. This typology is widely utilized and has facilitated researchers in crafting theories and designing scales to assess parenting styles. This transformative classification of parenting styles can be found in any family. Permissive parenting is marked by a lack of supervision and demandingness, while authoritarian parenting is demonstrated through a lack of warmth, inconsistency, and strict discipline. In contrast, authoritative parenting involves high levels of warmth, non-punitive and corrective discipline, as well as behavioral consistency, fostering adaptability in children.

Greenspan (2006) argues that the authoritative parenting style effectively combines the warmth and responsiveness of permissive parenting with the structure and high expectations of authoritarian parenting, guiding children's behavior through logical explanations while supporting them in learning from mistakes and fostering a solution-focused approach. A series of studies support this claim and emphasizes that authoritative parents instruct children in independence, self-assurance, and strategies for cultivating their unique identities by establishing rules and boundaries (Grolnick & Pomerantz, 2009), while their warm and nurturing demeanor promotes the growth of capable, prosocial, and self-sufficient adolescents and adults (Marsiglia et al., 2007), this parenting style also facilitates reciprocal communication, enabling parents to guide children and clarify the reasons behind rewards, punishments, and rules (Kim & Rohner, 2002).

In contrast to authoritative parents, authoritarian parents exhibit limited warmth and maintain high control over their children, often enforcing their established rules without regard for the child's needs and abilities. These parents do not take their child's emotions and needs into account while establishing rules, both at home and outside. According to Baumrind (1971), authoritarian parents influence, regulate, and evaluate children’s attitudes and conduct based on their established rules and preferences. Punitive measures are implemented to compel children to adhere to these rules, ultimately diminishing their autonomy. These punitive measures include both emotional and physical punishments and discourage verbal exchange. Marsiglia et al. (2007) confirmed that authoritarian parents prevent children from expressing their opinions or engaging in arguments, instead expecting them to strictly adhere to their drafted patterns of rules solely based on their authority and seniority. These parents often refuse to acknowledge their own mistakes and may tell children that they will only understand better when they are older.

Permissive parents are defined as extremely responsive, minimally demanding, and having significantly less control over their child’s activities (Hoeve et al., 2009). Another study by Gfroerer et al. (2004) stated that permissive parents are characterized as being more liberal in their approach, granting their child complete autonomy and providing nurturing and supportive environments. They permit the child to act according to their desires and preferences (Timpano et al., 2010). With minimal monitoring, these parents hope to foster a positive child-parent relationship by offering a considerable degree of freedom to their child (Marsiglia et al., 2007).

Effect of Parenting Styles on Psychosocial Problems

The decision to have a child holds great significance for couples, as it introduces a new chapter in their lives. Parenthood brings both joy and challenges, leading parents to question and contemplate their approaches to raising their children. In today's world, parenthood is a widely studied and discussed topic, with evolving techniques and styles providing fresh insights. Researchers continue to explore various aspects of parenting to help parents navigate this important journey with confidence and understanding (Nachoum et al., 2021 ). The impact of parenting extends throughout children's lives, significantly influencing their overall development and shaping their personalities. How children are raised, guided, and parented plays a crucial role in determining their character and potential outcomes. Children can exhibit strong and resilient personalities, but they can also reflect distorted versions of their parents' trial-and-error experiences (Segrin et al., 2020). Parents may not always be physically present to monitor and supervise their children, their parenting strategies foster the development of self-regulation, enabling children to internalize the ability to monitor and regulate their behavior (Baumrind, 1978).

Parenting styles have been thoroughly examined to evaluate their effects on various personality traits and psychosocial challenges, with numerous investigations indicating that these styles significantly shape a child's character; and that influence often persists into adulthood. Among the three styles, the authoritative parenting method is regarded as the most practical and has enduring effects on children. Gonzalez et al. (2002) additionally discovered that the authoritative parenting style positively predicts adolescents’ well-being and enhances learning capabilities, alleviating emotional difficulties. They also highlighted the beneficial impact of parental engagement on students' mastery orientation, asserting that authoritative parenting can produce lasting advantages. Parental engagement is also evident in the permissive parenting style, positively affecting certain facets of a child’s personality.

Baumrind's (1971) revolutionary typology of parenting styles transformed modern perspectives, with authoritative parenting recognized as a blend of the best caregiving practices. It incorporates a strong presence of both key attributes central to other parenting styles. This optimal style is characterized by high demands and high responsiveness. A blend of these two attributes allows an authoritative parent to provide warm nurturing alongside firmness and to establish rules. More than sixty years of research have shown that authoritative parenting promotes a high degree of emotional stability and resilience, high achievement, independence, and a strong sense of confidence during adolescence (Larzelere et al., 2013). Suldo and Huebner’s (2004) survey of 1,201 individuals sought to identify the influence of key components of authoritative parenting on life satisfaction, revealing a significant positive association between the variables. Milevsky et al. (2007) reached similar conclusions, noting an additional positive effect on self-esteem and reduced depression.

Authoritarian parenting has a rigid set of policies and is exceedingly controlling and demanding. On the nurturing side, these parents are distant and aloof, unfamiliar with their children's needs, and inattentive to their requirements. Punitive actions are viewed as methods for ensuring the child's compliance. Baumrind (1966) states that authoritarian parents establish strict behavioral standards, resulting in children and adolescents feeling dissatisfied with life, distrustful of others, and exhibiting withdrawal behaviors.

Permissive parents are nurturing and impose no demands, lacking a domineering attitude. This style is marked by indulgence, forgiving reactions, and acceptance of the child’s requests, even when unreasonable. By not setting rules or requiring compliance, permissive parents often raise individuals who struggle with independence and self-control (Lavrič & Naterer, 2020).

Sartaj and Aslam (2010) found that, compared to authoritarian parents, authoritative parents had notable positive associations with family life, healthiness, and coping, leading to emotionally stable children and experiencing fewer psychosocial issues. In contrast, Hoeve et al. (2008) state that, authoritarian parenting is linked to chronic delinquency, leading to serious behavioral problems and disorders. However, Joshi et al. (2009) found inconsistent results and a weak negative link between permissive parenting and depression. Milevsky et al. (2007) further explored this and noted that this parenting style leads to challenging behaviors in children. Conversely, those raised with authoritative methods show awareness of social norms, adaptability in their communities, and strong social skills in adolescence and early adulthood. Similar results were also concluded in Baumrind's (1971) study.

Hypotheses

1. Authoritative parenting style is negatively related with psychosocial problems among university students.
2. Authoritarian and permissive parenting styles are positively related with psychosocial problems among university students.

Method

Sample

The study included a total of 203 university students as participants, with 95 men and 108 women, with age range from 18 to 26 years (M = 21.58, SD = 2.40). A convenient sampling technique was utilized to recruit participants from various educational institutes located in Karachi, Pakistan. Specifically, based on convenience, four universities were approached: Federal Urdu University, University of Karachi, Mohammad Ali Jinnah University, and Iqra University. The participants were selected from the student population (see Table 1 ).

Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of the Sample (N =203)

Measures

Demographic Datasheet

It comprised items for gathering details about age, gender, education, and department.

The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (Goodman et al., 1998)

In this study, the focus was on measuring psychosocial problems, specifically emotional and behavioral issues. To assess these variables, The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (Goodman et al., 1998 ) was employed. This questionnaire consists of 25 items, with 20 items dedicated to measuring negative attributes and five items assessing positive attributes. The study focused solely on the 20 items measuring negative attributes, excluding the investigation of positive effects. Each subscale of the SDQ has five items with three response options include “not true”, “somewhat true”, and “certainly true” with each score ranging from 0 to 2. The total score was derived by summing the scores from these 20 items, and the omitted items did not impact the scoring or interpretation. The total score demonstrated a reliability of .76 (Goodman et al., 1998 ). Additionally, the subscales of the difficulties included emotional symptoms, conduct problems, hyperactivity, and peer problems. All these subscales should be combined to obtain a comprehensive score for psychosocial problems, excluding the prosocial behavior component.

Parental Authority Questionnaire (Buri, 1991)

The researchers utilized Buri's (1991) Parental Authority Questionnaire to assess parenting styles, measuring permissive, authoritarian, and authoritative styles as identified by Baumrind (1971) . The questionnaire employs a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The questionnaire has 30 items where three parenting styles i.e., permissive, authoritarian, and authoritative styles are measured by 10 items each respectively. The respondents had to respond twice on Parental Authority Questionnaire keeping in view that parenting styles of mothers and fathers separately. The scores for each parenting style, derived from the students’ evaluation of their parents’ authority, ranging between 10 to 50. A higher score indicates a greater level of appraisal for the corresponding parental authority prototype being measured. The questionnaire also identifies the prominent parenting style of each parent. Notably, the questionnaire demonstrates strong reliability, with authoritative father and mother alpha coefficient of .85 and .82, authoritarian father and mother alpha coefficient of .87 and .85, and permissive paternal and maternal scores of .74 and .75 alpha coefficients, respectively (Buri, 1991 ).

Procedure

The data were gathered via physical survey forms, which included a demographic sheet and questionnaires for the study variables. Ethical considerations were addressed through informed consent, where participants were informed about their voluntary participation, the confidentiality of their data, and their right to withdraw at any time without penalty. The data were calculated utilizing Microsoft Excel, with parenting types of both mothers and fathers measured using Excel formulas. Reverse scoring was applied to five items in the strengths and difficulties questionnaire, which were efficiently calculated using Excel. Data analysis was conducted using SPSS version 22.0.

Results

Descriptive statistics were utilized to examine the demographic variables and the adopted parenting style of both genders. Correlation analysis and multiple linear regressions were employed to assess the relationship between the research variables.

Table 2: Descriptive Statistics of Perceived Parenting Styles Among University Students (N =203)

The findings presented in Table 2 show that the most prevalent style among mothers was authoritative, whereas the permissive style was the least utilized parenting approach for both mothers and fathers. Additionally, the authoritative parenting style emerged as the most employed style for fathers.

Correlation Between Parenting Styles and Psychosocial Problems Among University Students

Table 3: Correlation Between Mothers and Fathers’ Parenting Styles and Psychosocial Problems Among University Students (N = 203)

**p<0.01, *p<0.05.

The findings from Table 3 indicated that the permissive parenting style of mothers had a non-significant negative relationship with psychosocial problems. Similarly, a father's permissive parenting style also showed no significant association with psychosocial problems. On the other hand, both parents' authoritarian parenting styles exhibited a weak positive but significant correlation, with mothers having a correlation coefficient of .24 (p<0.05) and fathers having a coefficient of .18 (p<0.01). Furthermore, a mother's authoritative parenting style displayed a significant negative correlation with psychosocial problems, with a coefficient of -.16 (p<0.05). However, there was nonsignificant relationship observed for an authoritative father, as indicated by a coefficient of -.03 (p > 0.05).

Parenting Styles Predict the Psychosocial Problems Among University Students

Table 4: Regression Coefficients of Maternal Parenting Styles Predicting the Psychosocial Problems among University Students (N = 203)

Table 4 shows the impact of maternal parenting styles on psychosocial problems. The R² value of 0.81 revealed that the maternal parenting styles explained 81% variance in the dependent variable of psychosocial problems with F = 5.83 with p = .00. Additionally, an authoritarian mother positively predicts psychosocial problems (β = .24, p = .00), whereas authoritative mother negatively predicts psychosocial problems (β = -2.15, p = .03). However, permissive mother reported non-significant effects on psychosocial problems (β = .08, p = .28).

Table 5: Regression Coefficients of Paternal Parenting Styles Predicting the Psychosocial Problems among University Students(N = 203)

Table 5 shows the impact of paternal parenting styles on psychosocial problems. The R² value of .45 revealed that the paternal parenting styles explained 45% variance in the dependent variable of psychosocial problems with F = 3.13 with p < .02. Additionally, authoritarian father positively predicts psychosocial problems (β = .19, p < 0.0), whereas both permissive (β = .12, p =.11) and authoritative (β = -.68, p = .37) father reported non-significant effect on psychosocial problems.

Discussion

The main purpose of this study was to examine and predict how various parenting styles of both mothers and fathers contribute to students' psychosocial problems. Additionally, the study aimed to explore the relationships between these variables. While extensive research has been conducted on the parenting styles of mothers in different countries, the role, impact, and associations of a father's parenting style with other variables have been rarely explored (Cabrera et al, 2000; Greif & Greif, 2004; Marsiglio et al., 2000).

Table 2 displays the frequencies of parenting styles, indicating that permissive parenting is infrequently observed in the current sample, accounting for only 12.3%. From this, it can be concluded that permissive parenting is the least commonly practiced style. These findings align with previous research conducted by Uji et al. (2014) and Pong et al. (2005). Moreover, upon examining the data, it becomes apparent that the most prevalent parenting style is authoritative parenting. However, it is essential to state that this study focused on university students, so parenting styles may vary in the general population. As reported by Assadi et al. (2007), university students often originate from environments that promote responsive and rational parenting, as well as open communication. Previous studies have consistently demonstrated a significant relationship between parenting styles and psychosocial problems. In line with these findings, the current study aimed to identify related variables and predictors of emotional and behavioral problems that exhibit a notable association. Specifically, the results indicated a positive correlation between authoritarian parenting and psychosocial, behavioral, and emotional problems. This finding is supported by Shen and Peterson (1999), who concluded that parental punitive behavior negatively impacted adolescents' self-esteem and self-efficacy, ultimately leading to a decline in academic performance. Furthermore, authoritarian parenting was associated with a lack of social competence with peers, anxiety, withdrawal, and higher levels of behavioral issues such as shyness and stealing. However, a study conducted by Stafford and Bayer (1993), who also observed that some college graduates considered authoritarian parenting justified, and it could yield positive effects as well. Therefore, this study provides additional support for the weak relationship observed in the current study.

The study also aimed to determine if authoritarian parenting has a significant impact on psychosocial problems, including emotional and behavioral issues. The results revealed that authoritarian parenting serves as a significant predictor of psychosocial problems. This suggests that when parents adopt a strict and controlling approach, it can have negative effects on how children feel and behave. The findings of this study align with the research of Sartaj and Aslam (2010), which concluded that authoritarian parenting is negatively associated with psychological adjustments in areas such as home life, health, and emotions. Similarly, Leung et al. (2004) predicted and examined how the controlling and punitive nature of authoritarian parenting could adversely impact children. However, as individuals reach adulthood, various other factors influence behavior, reducing the impact of parenting styles (Shen & Peterson, 1999). Moreover, two recent studies investigating the relationship between parenting styles and both self-esteem and self-concept among Chinese adolescents and young adults, and suicidal behaviors among college students, respectively, reported similar results. The findings indicated that authoritarian parenting was associated with higher maladjustment among the participants and was correlated with suicidality (Chen et al., 2024; Liu et al., 2024). A systematic review of parenting and psychosocial correlates contributing to social anxiety in Asian adolescents also concluded that authoritarian parenting results in significant negative consequences (Ilyas & Khan, 2023).

Previous research has indicated that authoritative parenting is the most effective approach and is inversely related to psychosocial issues (Rohner, 2005). This research also anticipated that authoritative parenting would be associated with lower levels of psychosocial, behavioral, and emotional issues. Since authoritative parents demonstrate greater responsiveness and hold higher expectations for their children, the impact of their parenting style tends to persist throughout life. They exhibit warmth and concern while also enforcing rules that children perceive as fair and logical. Children are involved in decision-making when forming family policies, and these parents accommodate their children's unique needs and differences. These parents acknowledge their mistakes and are willing to adjust if they find their guidelines unsuitable. Consequently, children experience greater security. They demonstrate elevated self-esteem, which reduces psychosocial issues (Cox & Harter, 2003; Suldo & Huebner, 2004). These children are socially adept, self-reliant, and secure, fostering strong relationships with peers. This parenting also helps alleviate depression and enhances well-being (Jackson & Scheines, 2005; Steinberg et al., 2006). Additionally, Seble Yosef (2022) also concluded in their study that authoritative parenting enhances children's ability to socialize, care about others' opinions, and express their own views, ultimately reducing the chances of psychosocial problems. Similarly, another study conducted among Pakistani participants supports the current results by concluding that authoritative parenting positively influences children's psychosocial development, life satisfaction, and overall well-being. The study found that children raised by authoritative parents tend to develop better social skills, higher self-esteem, and greater emotional resilience, reducing the likelihood of psychosocial issues (Khan & Siddiqui, 2021).

Overall, multiple studies have reached similar conclusions, further validating these findings.
Previous studies (Del Río et al., 2017; Lester et al., 2017) also indicate the insignificant relationship between authoritative fathers and psychosocial issues, proposing that the father’s role is reduced by the minimal time they spend at home. Generally, a father's approach to parenting is less influential than the mother’s. In most cultures, mothers devote more time to their children, profoundly shaping the child's behavior and understanding of parenting styles.
The last parenting style examined in this study is permissive parenting. It is regarded as the least effective, characterized by minimal control and a lack of expectations from the child. Although children are given the freedom to make choices and are encouraged to follow their desires, they still require parental guidance, which is absent in this approach. Without this support, children are left to navigate on their own, leading to an inconsistent relationship with permissive parents. This lack of involvement fails to address the child's issues and can lead to delinquent behaviors later in life. Excessive freedom and environmental factors may contribute to the development of antisocial behavior (Lee et al., 2006; Rosli, 2014; Underwood et al., 2009; Joshi et al., 2009).

The current study identifies an identical trend in findings, highlighting that this parenting style is the least favored among Pakistani parents, a conclusion also supported by Rosli's (2014) research. However, Baumrind (1971) contended that permissive parenting can have several beneficial outcomes for children. Providing greater autonomy leads to improved life satisfaction. Additionally, permissive parenting encourages children's choices, helping to reduce psychosocial problems.

The findings of the current research indicate that the father's parenting style has an insignificant relationship in certain aspects. This can be attributed to their absence from home for a significant portion of the day, which limits their direct influence on parenting. The individual data further supports this result, as it did not demonstrate a dominant parenting style in most cases. Additionally, the permissive parenting style was also found to be insignificant, thus aligning with our initial hypothesis. The current study aimed to explore the connection and impact of parenting style on various facets of a student's life and found that it significantly influences an individual's life. These results provide a foundation for future research, particularly in exploring the relatively unexplored variable of inconsistency among parents in terms of their parenting styles.

Limitations and Suggestions

The findings provided valuable insights into various underexplored aspects and can be beneficial for parents. However, for greater generalizability, it would be advantageous to conduct this research on a larger sample with more variations. For instance, focusing on school students would yield more diverse results. In terms of regression analysis, while it focused on causal relationships, incorporating stepwise regression or employing alternative methods could provide additional perspectives to consider. Furthermore, conducting qualitative analysis would offer further insights into the findings of this phenomenon. These insights can be leveraged to design parenting programs that educate parents on effective parenting practices, with a focus on promoting authoritative approaches. By addressing parenting styles and providing guidance, such programs can help prevent or mitigate psychosocial problems in adults, enhancing overall well-being and family dynamics.

Conclusion

The present study sought to assess the connection between various parenting styles and psychosocial issues among university students. The findings of the study highlighted that the most prevalent parenting style among mothers was authoritative, while the permissive style was the least common for both mothers and fathers. The authoritative parenting style was also the most practiced by fathers. The study also found that both parents' authoritarian parenting styles exhibited a weak positive but significant correlation with psychosocial problems. Additionally, the mother's authoritative parenting style had a significant negative relationship with psychosocial problems. The findings can be used to understand association link between parenting styles and the development of psychosocial problems in adults and to create effective parenting programs to teach parents effective parenting. The findings offer insights into the connection between parenting styles and the development of psychosocial problems in adults. They can be applied to develop effective parenting programs that educate parents on the principles of effective parenting.

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Received 21 October 2024
Revision received 12 March 2025