Research Article | Open Access

Effect of Academic Interventions on the Developmental Skills of Slow Learners

    Najma Iqbal Malik

    National Institute of Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan

    Ghazala Rehman

    National Institute of Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan

    Rubina Hanif

    National Institute of Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan


Received
06 May, 2010
Accepted
03 Jan, 2012
Published
30 Jun, 2012

The present study was a single-group pre-test and post-test design; it was conducted to see the effectiveness of academic interventions (Shaw, 2005) on developmental skills (adaptive, personal-social, communication, motor, and cognitive) of slow learners having borderline intelligence. Eight slow learners were identified through subjective ratings based on teacher’s appraisal and attained achievement scores in respective grades and scores attained on Raven’s Colored Progressive Matrices (CPM; Raven, Court, & Raven, 1977) during screening. Boys (n = 6) and girls (n = 2) of ages ranging from six years to six years and 11 months of age were purposefully selected from two private-sector schools of District and Tehsil Sargodha, Punjab, Pakistan. Developmental skills of slow learners were measured by Battelle Developmental Inventory (BDI-2; Newborg, 2004); assessment and screening was followed by academic intervention. Quantitative analyses revealed that academic interventions were highly effective in enhancing the developmental skills of slow learners’ adaptive, communication, and cognitive developmental skills. However, these interventions remained silent and failed to show any positive effect on personalsocial and motor skills.

The challenge of identifying slow learners has been a topic of increasing concern of researchers from last few decades (Khan, 2005; Shaw, 2003; Sing, 2004; Warnemuende, 2009). Academically slow learners are usually identified based on their attained scores on intelligence tests, which range between 75-89 IQ. A slow learner differs slightly from normal children in learning ability and cannot meet average academic standards year by year. Their intelligence test scores are likely to be low from average test scores; however, these are not too low to meet the large discrepancy set as an inclusion criterion for special educational services (Mercer, 1996). Although slow learner may have special educational needs, yet they do not fit neatly into the special education system and generally studies at normal schools (MacMillan, Gresham, Bocian, & Lambros, 1998). Academic slow learners are also labeled as borderline mentally retarded, dull, below average children. They are generally slow learner when they are faced with in tasks requiring abstract, symbolic, and conceptual skills (Lowenstein, 2003).

Furthermore, rate of slow learning direct these children (slow learners) to lag behind in their normal developmental skills acquisition and they tend to grasp basic concepts of living (i.e., social interaction, communication styles, memory skills and thinking patterns) about 1-2 years later in comparison to their peers (Caroll, 2002; Kaznowski, 2004 & Gouwens, 2002). Due to their borderline intellectual functioning which contributes negatively in their life as they lack concentration, have poor memory, imagination and foresight; and have an inability to express ideas clearly through the medium of language (Bhatt, 2009).

Research indicates that academically slow learners pose significant educational and behavioral difficulties in the schools because of their deficiencies in intellect and psycho-social skills (Anastasia, Elein, & Effi, 2006; Shaw, 2008). They differ from average students in the rate of learning and need much external stimulation/encouragement to do the simple type of work (Krishnakumar, Geeta, & Palat, 2006; Stenhouse, 2005). This is also well documented that slow learners do work at their ability level but below their grade level, which in turn leads to their adjustment problems in mainstream class rooms (Krishnakumar et al., 2006). Their deficit in skills (e.g. inadequate coping mechanisms, poor self image, immature interpersonal relationships, troubled communications, and inappropriate social role ideology) make them vulnerable or at risk of several psycho-social problems. These problems could only be addressed by incorporating interventional teaching strategies in the inclusive class rooms for their accommodation and to enhance the rate of their adequate psycho-social development (i.e., better adult and peer interactions, enhanced receptive and expressive communication and modesty of self-concept and social role by expressing logical reasoning and understanding of environmental demands) (Anastasia et al., 2006).

Unfortunately, in the context of Pakistani academic setting, there is sparse empirical evidence which may assist academic settings (schools) to identify slow learners (Aly, Taj, & Ibrahim, 2009), with the help of standardized and objective measures (IQ tests scores) (Hussein, 2009) and to develop and implement special educational criteria and curriculum and provide interventions for associated mental health issues (Haider, 2008).

Given the fact, that majority of these children, are initially not identified as ‘slow learners’ requiring special education and specifically designed interventions (Shaw, 2008). Probably because of the fact that they are able to understand things up to some level and do not present serious problems in their functional skills and these children function normally and they have physical agility and adeptness in different situations. Moreover, they also demonstrate common sense, and appear to have adequate memory (Mroczka, 2003). However, the typical problems in general cognitive function are more evident, when they are required to perform a task requiring higher mental processes; they fail to accomplish the task; mainly due to lack of/deficits in abstract thinking, organizational skills and generalization of information, which creates hurdles in their academic success (Balado, 2003).

In order to ensure slow learners’ success in schools their rate of slower learning typically requires accommodations through specifically designed interventions according to their ability level (Shaw, 2008). But before going toward the interventional styles it is critical that teachers and parents should consider a variety of sources of information before they assume that poor school performance is due to a slower learning ability rather than it being due to a real disability or situational factors (Carroll, 2002).

Hussain’s (2009) study supported the notion that; child’s mental health is largely influenced by child’s home environment, child’s schooling and the society at large. This confirms the critical and helpful role of parents and teachers in giving prime attention, vigilance and care to ensure sound mental health particularly in developing countries like Pakistan due to their protective alliance through suitable interventions (Aly, Taj, & Ibrahim, 2009; Haider, 2008; Rahman, Mubbashar, Harrington, & Gatter, 2000; Rehman, 2005; Yaqoob, Ferngren, Jalil, Nazir, & Karlberg, 2008). Developmental psychologists have confirmed the importance and relation of IQ with developmental skills acquisition. A firm view is that there is strong interplay between environmental factors and person’s normal functioning which determine his/her successful social life. Erickson (1950) has given importance to cultural and social aspects of life and describes the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan. According to him one’s life is a series of lessons and challenges which help us to grow in multiple stages of life. Further, Vygotsky (1978) contributes that if theses leaning aids are give in a manner that they relate with the cultural context of the child then profound impact on the developmental skills becomes more visible. It is evident from literature that while dealing with children with borderline intelligence, the theories of Erickson and Vygotsky are found to be more valuable (Tudge, 1990; Wood, 1998). Based on Erickson and Vygotsky’s theories, various models of slow learners and their related risks have emerged and Shaw’s model of slow learners and mental health issues is the one most widely used. Shaw (2000a) described the slow learner’s borderline intellectual functioning in relation to their developmental tasks. It also elaborates how deficiencies in these task completions can lead to various kinds of mental health risks among slow learners.

Keeping in view, the specified significance of research on slow learners in Western community and effectiveness of Shaw’s academic intervention plan, the dire need was felt to explore application of academic interventions based on Shaw’s model in Pakistani settings. The present research is designed to find out the effectiveness of academic interventional teaching plan for developmental skills of slow learners. On the basis of the objective of this study, following hypothesis was formulated for the study:

Hypothesis 1:
Slow learners will show higher level of adaptive skills in post test assessment in comparison to pre-test assessment
Hypothesis 2:

Slow learners will show higher level of personal-social skills in post-test assessment in comparison to pre-test assessment

Hypothesis 3:
Slow learners will show higher level of communication skills in post-test assessment as compared to pre-test assessment
Hypothesis 4:
Slow learners will show higher level of motor skills in post-test assessment as compared to pre-test assessment
Hypothesis 5:
Slow learners will show higher level of cognitive skills in post-test assessment as compared to pre-test assessment

METHOD

Sample
Slow learners (N = 08), both boys (n = 6) and girls (n = 2), were purposefully selected from two private sector schools of urban area of District and Tehsil Sargodha, Punjab. In order to have a homogeneous control sample for comparison, the children were matched for age (6 year to 6 years & 11 months of age), grade (1st grade), high socio economic status (above Rs. 31, 000/- per month) and mother tongue as Urdu. For the purpose of this investigation 8 participants were identified as ‘slow learners’ on the basis of Ravens Colored Progressive Matrices (RCPM) (Raven, Court, & Raven, 1977) scores i.e., 10th to below 25th percentile; and teacher’s appraisal: the consideration of the child performance in curricular and recreational interests; and overall academic performance: in the class, designated as “dull” or below average of their class mates. Only those two schools were selected whose principals allowed imparting interventions, agreed to spend finances on teaching aids and their teachers showed commitment for long duration. Both the schools run from play group to grade 10, and follow the standard curriculum of Punjab Text Book Board for the year 2008. They had 30 teachers as a total teaching staff whose education rages from B.A. to M.Sc. The selected 4 teachers for interventions had the education level of B.A., B.Ed., and were acknowledged by their respective schools administration for their good communication and tactfulness in dealing with challenging situations. Prior to intervention they received a six day training program that was inspired by teaching aid manuals of UNESCO (UNESCO, 2007), UNICEF (UNICEF, 2007) Islamabad, Pakistan and Shaw’s guide of educational programming frame work (2005, 2008, & 2010) and teaching resources for teaching slow learners (Shaw, 2001). Teachers’ training was carried out to ensure the proper implementation of intervention plan. Parents of all eight slow learners were also involved in this part of study and regular parents, teacher, and researcher meetings were arranged.

Instruments
Following instruments were used in present study:

Ravens Colored Progressive Matrices (RCPM). It is internationally recognized culture fair, non verbal IQ test, to measure the ‘g’ factor. It is specially designed for use with children between ages of 5 ½ and 11 ½ years. This easily administered, paper and pencil test is comprises of three sets of twelve problems; arranged to “assess mental development up to a stage where a person is sufficiently able to reason by analogy to adopt this way of thinking as a consistent methods of inference (Raven, Court & Raven, 1977).” In the present study children having the raw scores and corresponding percentiles i.e., 10th to below 25th percentile were identified as slow learners. Literature supports (Gatti, 2004; Li, Gamlin, Jain, & Luther, 2001; Pujar & Gaonkar, 2008) RCPM is a reliable source to identify slow learners/intellectually subnormal or have deteriorated cognitive abilities.

Battelle Developmental Inventory-2. Slow learners were assessed for their key developmental skills of adaptive, socio-personal, communication, motor and cognitive skills through Battelle Developmental Inventory 2nd edition (BDI-2; Newborg, 2005). The full BDI-2 battery consists of 450 test items grouped into the following five domains: (i) Adaptive domain (child’s ability to use the information and skills acquired in the other domains), (ii) Personal- Social domain (abilities and characteristics that allow a child to engage in meaningful social interaction with adults and peers and to develop his or her own self-concept and sense of social role), (iii) Communication domain (how effectively a child receives and expresses information and ideas through verbal and nonverbal means), (iv) Motor domain (child’s ability to control and use the large and small body muscles) and (v) Cognitive domain (those skills and abilities most commonly thought as “mental” or “intellectual,” with the exception of language and communication skills). BDI-2 has been successfully used by medical and health professionals for the assessment of psychomotor developmental delays (HOPE, 2009a, 2009b), assessment of disabilities and assessment of typical developmental rate of children in Pakistan (Aly et al., 2009).

Academic Interventional Teaching Plan. It is essential for educational sector to accommodate every child in productive environment and it is desired to have best method of teaching and training of slow learners/at risk students to be incorporated with the traditional ones to enforce the learned material. For this purpose in the light of four broader themes given by Shaw (2000b), an academic interventional teaching plan was designed and implemented in mainstream classrooms. The following steps were undertaken to implement the academic interventional teaching plan:

1.
Modification in the curriculum and study material: The standard curriculum of Punjab Text Book Board (Pakistan) of 1st grade was modified as more pictures books, charts, models and educational blocks (made of thermopile, plaster of Paris and wood), educational soft ware of games (e.g., Rays Package of Learning Aid, Old Mac Dot Farm etc.) and puzzles (letter and picture matching exercises in Math, English and Urdu; count and tell, tell before and after, hundreds, tens and ones, find the largest number, find the same or spot the different one) with the help of computers, educational rhymes and short stories, crayons, poster colors and playful dough (clay) along with paper pencil, were made part of study. This was accomplished with the help of art teacher and a professional artist.
2.
Modification in classroom environment: A regular seat change plan was designed to be implementing on weekly basis. Slow learners were stipulated to be sitting in front whereas their peers had a weekly seat change program by rotation. Walls were decorated and painted with teaching/curriculum material models, charts, pictures and story characters. This was furnished with the help of artist and art teacher, who were assisted by the researcher and class teachers for generating ideas.
3.
Modification in time demands: The deadlines for task completion/performance were designed to be lenient for slow learners as compare to other class fellows i.e., if normal average child need 5 minutes for one problem solution then 7-8 minutes were given to slow learner.
4.
Peer tutoring and use of groups in learning: Class assignments were gradually made easy for slow learners and were given in small parts/units. In this activity, senior grade slow learners were assigned ‘tutoring of younger grade students. In addition, complex/technical educational tasks related to subject area were distributed among groups.
5.
Daily good behavior exercise: In daily routine a ‘model good behavior’ was exercised by role modeling of peers, which was monitored (through observation by researcher and teacher) and was incorporated (imitated) in their routine behavior as a mode of social skills training and social problem solving exercises. For example “how to take permission”, “how to say good morning and good bye”, “how to say sorry on your mistakes by accepting them”, “how to pay gratitude by saying thank you”, etc. These exercises aimed to help slow learners’ in resolving their problems of interpersonal communication, problematic relations and poor initiative/motivation issues.
6.
Differential Reinforcement and immediate feedback to reward every desirable behavior: On each successful task accomplishment and initiative, immediate feedback (in form of praise from teacher and clapping from the peers was initiated) and encouragement were made part of intervention plan; to help boost their self-esteem and self-confidence.
7.
Review of concepts on weekly basis: At the last working day of week (on Friday’s), the week plan was reviewed in a light/fun way with the help of various techniques such as drama, role-play, storytelling, and presentations. This exercise aimed at assisting children to develop and form relationship and associations between with the help of pictorial presentation of each concept and models of learning material and behaviors.

Procedure
Written informed consent from the schools, teachers and parent of slow learners was obtained before the start of this intervention program. At first step after sample selection of eight slow learners, baseline measurement (pre-test) of developmental skills was carried out and slow learners were assessed through BDI-2 for their developmental skills prior to interventions. At second step, participants were exposed to academic interventional teaching plan for a period of four months for five days/week and four hours/day in a mainstream room setup, which was inclusive of different abilities level. At third step, after the completion of the intervention period, second baseline measurement (post-test) of developmental skills of slow learners was taken through BDI-2. To assess the difference between two baseline measurements as an effect of academic interventions Wilcoxon Signed Rank test was applied on data.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Different instructional strategies used in the academic interventional teaching plan for slow learners were found to be effective in terms of enhancing the developmental skills level of slow learners in inclusive classrooms. The findings indicate an expected increase in the range of scores on BDI-2 in post-test, compared to the pre-test scores (before the implementation of interventions). Hence, these findings support study assumption that slow learners will score higher on BDI-2 after having exposure to academic interventions (see Table 1).

Table 1:
Mean, Standard Deviations, Minimum to Maximum Range
of Scores on BDI-2 by 6-6.11 Years Slow Learners in
Pre-Post Test (N=8)

Similar trends were observed in the median effect size and Wilcoxon Signed Ranks values of pre-post tests of slow learners on BDI-2, its domain and sub-domains (see Table 2).

Table 2:
Median, Effect Size and Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Values of
Pre-Post groups of Slow Learners on BDI-2, its domains
and sub-domains (N=8)

Note. SC= Self Care, PR= Personal Responsibility, AI= Adult Interaction, PI=Peer Interaction
SR = Self concept & Social Role, RC= Receptive communication, EC= Expressive
Communication, GM= gross Motor, FM= Fine Motor, PM= Perceptual Motor
AM= Attention and Memory, RA= Reasoning and Academic Skills, and
PC= Perception and Concepts

The findings in Table 2 reveal significant differences between the pre-test and post test scores of slow learners after the exposition of academic interventions especially in the domains of adaptive, socio-personal, communication, and cognitive with the exception of motor domain which confirms the study hypotheses no. 1, 2, 3, and 5. This further indicate that sub-domains of adaptive skills i.e., self care and personal responsibility; personal social skills i.e., peer interaction; communication skills i.e., receptive and expressive communication; motor skills i.e., perceptual motor; cognitive skills i.e., attention and memory, reasoning and academic skills, and perception and concepts skills were significantly enhanced as a result of profound effect of academic interventions. However, the sub-domains of personal social skills i.e., adult interaction, self-concept and social role; motor skills i.e., gross and fine motor skills failed to get any benefit from the interventions. This partially confirms the study hypotheses that slow learners get benefit in their domains of personal-social, communication and cognitive skills. However, sub-domain of personal social i.e., peer interaction shows profound and significant effect of interventions with exception to total domain of personal social and its other sub-domains of adult interaction and self concept and social role.

Furthermore similar findings were obtained through the daily feedback of teachers (they were instructed prior to the interventions implementation that they would prepare feed back by checking each and every behavior) and researcher’s observations; this is reported separately in the qualitative report.

These interventions were although new for our participants to our study; who seen to appear more confident and display a positive sense of self-worth and feeling of belongingness which help them integrating well in their class and peers. This was also observed that exposure to concrete instructions and immediate feedback on their desired goal directed behavior s these students show more sensitivity in following instructions and establishing the ability to carry out their daily tasks with minimal prompting.

Peer tutoring (Behera, 2009; Clattenburg, 2003; Hussein, 2009) and social skills exercises helped them learn the social skill of asking permission, paying gratitude and coping with challenges of life. Furthermore, their receptive and expressive communications seem to benefit from interventions and they were observed displaying empathy towards others i.e., understanding feelings, thoughts and emotions of others by recognizing their facial expressions and maintaining appropriate eye contact while communicating with others.

Moreover, these interventions helped to build their sense of safety by understanding the model behavior to safeguard them from danger; they appear more aware about morality and took pride in their self accomplishments.

This is fair to say that the participants seem to have maximum benefit of this intervention i.e., review of concepts on a weekly basis helped boosting up their minor level leads by maximum course of revisions. These reviews were in the form of educational rhymes, stories, play, drama and fun activities set them free from the burdens of educational life. They in fact learned significantly, by the use of casual teaching styles/non-formal remediation teaching strategies; rather than learning in more structured classroom set up.

The researcher was aware of their limited cognitive abilities, and giving them large amount of information/knowledge in paper pencil form in one setting was very difficult (Haskvitz, 2007). However, this teaching was incorporated and internalized in from of fun way activities to meet their unique requirement of alternative methods for attaining achievement and success (Shaw, Grimes, Bulman, 2005).

As expected these academic interventions provided opportunities for effective integration/adjustment and better learning opportunities and modified curriculum with a blend of charts, pictures, models (Pujar & Gaonkar, 2008). These made participants more alert, prompt and active; they were highly motivated and interested in learning. This helped improving their speed of learning and provided them knowledge and strong base of understanding and conceptualization. Several previous studies (Mohansundaram & Dharmashekar, 2001; Philip & Marcia, 2002; Reddy & Ramar, 1995; Rawat, 1977, and Singh, 2004) have also revealed that interventions through different stimulating and enriching instructional strategies and multi model approaches are certainly effective than the traditional method of teaching for slow learners in mainstream class rooms.

Similar feedback was received by the parents in parent-teacher and parent-researcher meetings that these children showed remarkable progress in interpersonal and social skills. These results were also in line with the findings of Davis and Williams (1972) that slow learners got maximum advantage by multi-model approach instead of uni-model approach i.e., if they are taught by using different strategies then it particularly help them in creating a favorable attitude toward learning and promote a sound conceptual understanding of the taught material. These findings also confirm the Vygotsky’s (1978) concept of practical intelligence in one’s own cultural context/proximal zones. Thus according to him the etiology of learning is social interaction: a concept is first presented to a child socially (inter psychologically) either by parent, peer or teacher, later to appear inside the child through the process of internalization. According to this concept if the cultural context/proximal zones of the slow learners weather in educational paradigms or in home setting is more facilitating in nature then the chances of their practical intelligence can be raised. It can be done with the help of intervention as and if early identification and special needs advocacy is going to be taken into account then one can safe guard slow learners for indulging in several metal health issues and their adjustment in the society can be enhanced.

Present research supported that slow learners were enrolled in our mainstream schools and due to their deficit in developmental skills; they need extra attention of teacher, policy makers and psychologists. They were also found to be at risk of several mental health problems because of their below average intellectual abilities and deficit developmental skills. However, an early identification, assessment of developmental skills and supportive interventional plan can safeguard this large minority form various adversities of school and social life yet these are the neglected area of Pakistani education reform still so far. These interventions boosted the rate of developmental skills and worked as an enhancer in this way, which proved that interventional teaching plan works is very much effective in enhancing the developmental skills of slow learners studying in main stream classroom. In addition, it not only improved their mental health but also increased the level of their adjustment in the main stream classroom and helped them to become the part of progressive community. This gives an implication for the interventional training of academic nature for slow learners that can assist them to advance so that they can parallel children with normal development.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

The findings of the study confirmed that the academic interventions were very effective in enhancing the developmental skills of slow learners as content analysis of the daily feedback reports prepared by class teachers about the child’s behavior (relevance to cultural context); information gathered through the class room observations; meeting with concerned parents and teachers of the slow learners supported that. It was also found that slow learners got maximum benefit of academic interventions for their socio cultural settings and about 90% of students benefited from the academic intervention type i.e., review of concepts on weekly basis {end of every week (preferably on Fridays)} in a fun manner with the help of drama, role play, rhymes and storytelling. Present study also had both practical and theoretical implications as it not only add up the theoretical construct of educational and school psychology but also will be helpful for the persons of academia, policy makers, educational and child psychologist/counselors in dealing with this population of special needs advocacy.

REFERENCES

  1. Aly, Z., Taj, F., & Ibrahim, S. (2009). Missed opportunities in surveillance and screening systems to detect developmental delay: A developing country perspective. Brain and Development, In Press, corrected proof.
  2. Anastasia, V., Elein, D., & Effi, A. (2006). Preferences of students with general learning difficulties for different service delivery modes. European Journal of Special Needs, 21(2), 201-216.
  3. Balado, C. (2003). Teacher to teacher, Slow Learner questions. University of Central Florida, School Psychology/Counselor Educational Programs.
  4. Behera, H. (2009). Dealing with slow learners. Articles for teachers’ board. Retrieved from https://www. Tetrabb. com
  5. Bhatt, M. (2009). Are the teaching practices in mainstream classrooms having children with special needs inclusive? Reflections in Indian context. Annual Report of 2008-09. Setu Developmental Intervention Centre, Ahmadabad, India.
  6. Caroll, S. (2002). Slow Learners in the mainstream classroom: A handout for teachers. National Association of School Psychologists.
  7. Clattenburg, C. (2003). A field guide to the slow learners. Redwood City Special Education Department for Teachers, Parents and the Community.
  8. Davis, R. L. L., & Williams, P. (1972). A comparison of three methods of teaching fractions to older slow learners. Educational Research, 14(3), 236-243.
  9. Erickson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society. New York. W. W. Norton.
  10. Gatti, S. L. (2004). Identifying students at risk for academic failure: The application of a prereferral screening model including responsiveness to intervention. Unpublished PhD dissertation, Department of Psychology, Graduate Faculty of the Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College.
  11. Gouwens, D. A. (2002). Slow learners: A guide to academic interventions for parents. Helping Children at Home and School II: Handouts for Families and Educators. National Association for School Psychologists, 175-178. Haider, S. I. (2008). Pakistani teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion of students with special educational needs. Pakistan Journal of Medical Science, 24(4), 632-636.
  12. Haider, S. I. (2008). Pakistani teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion of students with special educational needs. Pakistan Journal of Medical Science, 24(4), 632-636.
  13. Haskvitz, A. (2007). Helping your slow learning child: The car family resource.
  14. HOPE (2009a). Psychomotor study of developmental delay in pre-school /school going children. Rising HOPE newsletter, April, 2009.
  15. HOPE (2009b). Psychomotor Development Project. Rising HOPE newsletter, August, 2009.
  16. Hussein, S. J. (2009). Social and educational determinants of child mental health: Effects of neighborhood, family, and school characteristics in a sample of Pakistani primary school children. Journal of Pakistan Psychiatric Society, 6(2), 90-97.
  17. Kaznowski, K. (2004, Dec). Slow learners: Are educators leaving them behind? National Association of Secondary School Principals, NASSP Bulletin, 88, 31-45.
  18. Khan, S. (January 31, 2005). Slow learners need lots of support. The HINDU.
  19. Krishnakumar, P., Geeta, M. G., Palat, R. (2006). Effectiveness of individualized educational program for slow learners. Indian Journal of Pediatrics, 73, 135-137.
  20. Li, Z. H., Gamlin, P. J., Jain, U. R. K., & Luther, M. G. (2001). Mediated compliance training (MCT): A cognitive intervention for noncompliant behavior in children with developmental disabilities. In Gamlin, P. J. M., Luther, G., & Wagner, G. (Eds.). (2001).). Exploring human potential: Facilitating growth in the new Millennium. Toronto: Captus University Press.
  21. Lowenstein, D. (2003). Understanding and helping the Slow Learner.
  22. Macmillan, D. L., Gresham, F. M., Bocian, K. M., & Lambros, K. (1998). Current plight of borderline students: Where do they belong? Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 33, 83-94.
  23. Mercer, C. (1996). Learning disabilities definitions and criteria used by state education departments, Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 19, 217-232.
  24. Mohansundaram, K., & Dharmasekar, L. (2001). Effectiveness of remedial teaching in improving the map drawing ability of standard X students in social sciences. Indian Psychology Review, 56, 12-17.
  25. Mroczka, C. (2003). Slow Learners (mini paper # 3).
  26. Newborg, J. (2005). Examiner’s manual: Battelle developmental inventory (2nd ed.). The riverside publishing company.
  27. Philip, B., & Marcia, L. (2002). Beliefs about science. How does science intervention contribute? Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 235-243.
  28. Pujar, L. L., & Gaonkar, V. (2008). Instructional strategies to accelerate science learning among slow learners. Karnataka Journal of Agricultural Science, 21(4), 553-556.
  29. Rahman, A., Mubbashar, M., Harrington, R., & Gater, R. (2000). Developing child mental health services in developing countries. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41, 539-546.
  30. Raven, J. C., Court, J. H., & Raven, J. (1977). Manual for Ravens Colored Progressive Matrices (2nd ed.). London: Lewis and Co.
  31. Rawat (1977). Construction and standardization of diagnostic test in chemistry. In Reddy, G. L., & Ramar, R. (1995). Section: Survey Research in Education.
  32. Reddy, G. L., & Ramar, R. (1995). Effectiveness of multimedia based modular approach in teaching mathematics and science to low achievers. Journal of Educational, 18, 148-150.
  33. Rehman, T. (2005). Denizens of alien world: A study of education, inequality and polarization in Pakistan. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  34. Shaw, S. R. (2000a). Slow Learners and mental health issues. NASP Communiqué, 28, 4.
  35. Shaw, S. R. (2000b). Academic Interventions for slow learners. NASP Communiqué, 28, 16.
  36. Shaw, S. R. (2001). A guide to teaching slow learners. Teaching for Excellence.
  37. Shaw, S. R. (2003). Slow learners: Promoting academic resilience for all children. Full day workshop presented to the National Association of School Psychologists annual convention. Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
  38. Shaw, S. R. (2005). Slow learners and mental health issues (up date).
  39. Shaw, S. R., Grimes, D., & Bulman, J. (2005). Educating slow learners: Are charter schools the last, best hope for their educational success? The Charter Schools Resource Journal, 1(1), 10-19.
  40. Shaw, S. R. (2007). Background of children with borderline intellectual functioning A. K. A. Slow learners.
  41. Shaw, S. R. (2008). An educational programming frame work for a subset of students with diverse learning needs: Borderline intellectual functioning. Interventions in School and Clinic, 43(5), 291-299.
  42. Shaw, S. R. (2010). Rescuing students from the slow learner trap. Principal Leadership, 12-16, National Association of Secondary School Principals.
  43. Shaw, S. R., Grimes, D., & Bulman, J. (2005). Educating slow learners: Are Charter schools the last, best hope for their educational success? The Charter Schools Resource Journal, 1(1), 10-19.
  44. Sing, V. P. (2004). Education of the slow learners. New Delhi, India: Sarup.
  45. Stenhouse, G. (May 05, 2005). Slow learners fall victims to dogma. The New Zealand Herald.
  46. Tudge, J. R. H. (1990). Vygosky, the zone of proximal development and peer collaboration: Implications for classroom practice. In Moll, L. C. (Ed.), Vygotsky and education. Instructional implications and applications of socio-historical psychology. Cambridge University Press, New York
  47. UNESCO EFA Global Monitoring Report (2007). Special theme: Early childhood care and education.
  48. UNICEF (2007). PAKISTAN: Focus on improving basic education in Punjab.
  49. Vygostky, L. S. (1978). The concept of activity in Scottish psychology. In K. Richardson & S. Sheldon (Eds.). Cognitive development and adolescence. Erlbaum.
  50. Warnemurnde, C. (2009). The slow learner: The informed parent article. Inter-mag publications.
  51. Wood, D. (1998). How children think and learn: The social context of cognitive development (2nd ed.). Oxford publishing, Blackwell.
  52. Yaqoob, M., Ferngren, H., Jalil, F., Nazir, R., & Karlberg, J. (2008). Early child health in Lahore, Pakistan: XII. Milestones. Acta Paediatrica, 82(391), 151-157.

How to Cite this paper?


APA-7 Style
Malik, N.I., Rehman, G., Hanif, R. (2012). Effect of Academic Interventions on the Developmental Skills of Slow Learners. Pak. J. Psychol. Res, 27(1), 135-151. https://pjpr.scione.com/cms/abstract.php?id=345

ACS Style
Malik, N.I.; Rehman, G.; Hanif, R. Effect of Academic Interventions on the Developmental Skills of Slow Learners. Pak. J. Psychol. Res 2012, 27, 135-151. https://pjpr.scione.com/cms/abstract.php?id=345

AMA Style
Malik NI, Rehman G, Hanif R. Effect of Academic Interventions on the Developmental Skills of Slow Learners. Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research. 2012; 27(1): 135-151. https://pjpr.scione.com/cms/abstract.php?id=345

Chicago/Turabian Style
Malik, Najma, Iqbal, Ghazala Rehman, and Rubina Hanif. 2012. "Effect of Academic Interventions on the Developmental Skills of Slow Learners" Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research 27, no. 1: 135-151. https://pjpr.scione.com/cms/abstract.php?id=345