Development and Validation of Multidimensional Scale of Social Media Use

Present study was executed to develop and validate the multidimensional social media use scale. Current study was composed of three studies i.e., study-1 was carried for development of new scale in addition to ensure the psychometric soundness of measurement instrument; study-2 was of pilot study that tend to have an initial insight into the relationship pattern of study variables; Purposive sampling technique was used to draw the two separate samples of millennials for EFA (N = 346) and CFA (N = 673) respectively. In order to establish the construct validity Social Networking Usage Questionnaire (Gupta & Bashir, 2018) scale was used. Exploratory factor analyses (principal component with direct oblimin) produced a coherent and interpretable 4-factor solution for multidimensional scale of social media use (active media use, enhancement motive use, compensation motive use, and passive content reading; k = 28) The factor loading of these two scales ranged from .45 to .86, indicating acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach > .70). Their relationship with other focal measures aligned with the relevant theory i.e., social networking usage questionnaire. Followed by conclusions, conceived limitations and suggestions for future researches also been highlighted.

There is an emerging concern among researchers about how much time people spend on social media (Griffiths & Kuss, 2017). In recent years, the utilization of social media has garnered a growing amount of focus and attention (Mahalingham et al., 2022). "Social media" refers to websites and other forms of internet technology that make it easier for users to communicate with one another by enabling the sharing of information, ideas, and other topics that are of mutual interest (Swar & Hameed, 2017, p. 141).  There is an increasing amount of time spent by adolescents and young adults on social media (Twenge & Campbell, 2019). Social media, despite its reputation for causing harm to people's mental health, has been shown to be an effective medium for developing personal brand, maintaining relationships, and exchanging ideas (Twenge & Campbell, 2019; Holliman et al., 2021).
Social media has completely changed the way people interact and communicate, not just in Pakistan but all over the world. As more and more Pakistanis join social media platforms, it's becoming really important to understand how they're using these platforms. However, a lot of the research out there doesn't really give us a clear picture of all the different ways people are using social media nor a psychometrically sound measure for measuring it (Yang, et al., 2021).
In the world of social media, there are two types of activities: active and passive. Creating and sharing material on social media, as well as responding to and interacting with others, are all examples of active social media use (Zhang et al., 2020). An active social media user is one who creates or posts a variety of content to an undetermined audience on a regular basis. The term "active" social media use refers to the creation or dissemination of social media content as a whole, such as status updates and notes. Subrahmanyam et al., (2020) the use of social media has been found to have an advantageous effect on adult’s well-being, including a greater sense of connectedness, an increase in good feelings, and an increase in self-esteem (Manago, & McKenzie, 2022). Researchers have shown that certain types of social media communication are advantageous in research studies. Self-esteem and subjective well-being are higher among young adults who engage in texting and commenting than in those who do not (Yau et al., 2021).
Passive use of social media refers to activities like skimming a newsfeed or visiting one's own or another's profile page that do not involve creating new material. Passive activities such as web browsing and media consumption are more popular than active methods of exchanging ideas or passing on information.  Simply scrolling through social media and passively consuming content has been linked to lower quality of life in various studies. According to a number of one-time studies, adolescents who use social media passively are more likely to suffer from sadness and anxiety (Thorisdottir et al., 2019).
Understanding why people use social media is just as crucial as determining what they do when on social media, according to psychologists. The Gratification Theory, developed by Katz et al., 1974, is a well-known framework that helps us understand the reasons behind people's media usage, particularly in the realm of social media e.g., Hossain et al. (2019), Kircaburun et al. (2018), and Whiting and Williams (2013). This theory assumes that individuals are active agents who select and utilize various forms of media in order to satisfy unique, individually meaningful demands. Since media use is a way for people to achieve what they want, they'll take advantage of specific features and engage in certain behaviors on social media platforms in order to satisfy their current requirements and goals (Valkenburg, 2022).
People who use social media to interact with friends and family had better mental health, according to a study by Burke and Kraut (2016) that analyzed three waves of surveys and tracked data from participants' Facebook usage. It has been found that students who "friend" strangers at college have worse self-esteem, less social adjustment, and less happiness in their lives (Yang & Lee, 2020). The first pattern represents stimulation, while the second represents displacement. Through computer-mediated communication, existing friends' involvement and self-disclosure are made easier, and the quality and intimacy of relationships are improved. Being online with people who have weak ties can detract from the quality of one's relationships and be detrimental to one's general health and happiness. Studying online communication and social media platforms and their consequences on well-being, it becomes clear which channels and platforms are utilized more frequently by people with strong or weak ties (Valkenburg & Peter, 2011; Valkenburg & Peter, 2007).

Rationale of study

This study was an empirical attempt to develop and validate a scale to the examination of the multidimensional use of social media (MSMU) among millennials is crucial, particularly considering the ever-evolving nature of this digital landscape. While numerous studies have delved into the impact of social media on the mental health of adolescents, ongoing research remains imperative due to the fluidity of this construct over time. In Pakistan, investigations into social media usage often employ generic methodologies, neglecting the distinct cultural and contextual factors that influence online behaviors (Bilal et al., 2019).
The global landscape of social media usage is continually shifting, influenced by emerging habits and trends that shape online communication across different regions. Therefore, updating measurement tools is essential to reflect these evolving practices within diverse cultural contexts. This ensures that researchers can capture the latest trends in social media engagement accurately. Consequently, there's a noticeable absence of reliable scales tailored to measure the various dimensions of social media involvement among individuals in Pakistan. Acknowledging millennials as one of the most influential demographics in social media usage, it's evident that their patterns of engagement are undergoing significant evolution. The advent of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2019, for example, triggered substantial shifts in digital activity. However, post-pandemic, there existed no comprehensive scale to gauge social media use across multiple dimensions among Pakistani millennials.
The model proposed by Yang et al. (2021) provides researchers with a framework to explore the diverse facets of social media use, emphasizing the significance of each variable. To address this gap, the current study endeavors to develop an indigenous instrument in the Urdu language, specifically tailored to measure adolescents' multidimensional usage of social media. This undertaking represents a significant advancement, as it seeks to establish a measure of multidimensional social media use with robust psychometric properties, including validity, reliability, and factorial structure. By doing so, it aims to provide a comprehensive tool for researchers to better understand and assess the nuanced nature of social media engagement among Pakistani millennials.

Method

Present research aimed to develop and validate multidimensional scale for social media use. After focus groups, the researchers initially identified four dimensionsf millennial use of social media. The Millennial were asked to provide specific examples of these traits. The available literature on these dimensions and focus group discussions, were evaluated. The expert evaluation of the initial items resulted in four dimensions of social media use: active social media use, enhancement motive use, compensation motive use and passive content reading and 59 initial items were developed. These 59 items were then reviewed by a committee for appropriateness of content, and resulted in 48 items. After which the questionnaire was finalized and distributed.

Sample

The study involved sample-1 (EFA) consists on 346 participants from the millennial generation, who were purposefully selected from three public and private universities in the districts of Lahore and Sargodha. Their ages ranged from 25 to 40 years, with an average age of 29.05 and a standard deviation of 2.30. Sample-2 (CFA) was consisted on 673 participants with age >.25.

Demographic Details

Following detail were taken in the demographic sheet of millennials i.e., gender, age, education, total number of social media accounts, most frequent used social media platforms, daily time spent on social media.

Inclusion Criteria

The sample must comprise millennials who match the following criteria:

• Participants must adhere to the specified age criteria of the millennial cohort.
• Participants must be users of social media platforms.
• Participants must be residents of the specified geographical area in order to ensure the research's relevance within the particular cultural and social context.
• Participants must possess the essential technological devices, such as smartphones and computers, as well as reliable internet connectivity, in order to engage in social media activities.

Exclusion Criteria

Participants who do not fall within the defined age range of the millennial generation and participants without social media accounts are excluded.

Measures

Social networking usage was utilized with the newly designed measure to confirm convergent validity. The following is a brief description of the scale:

Social Networking Usage (Gupta & Bashir, 2018)

A questionnaire regarding social networking usage is an effective method for measuring social networking usage. It evaluates users based on their academic pursuits, their social lives, the amusement they seek, and the information they seek from social networking sites. The total number of items on the scale is 19. On a Likert scale with five points ranging from always to never, the responses are to be given to the items. The reliability of the scale as a measure of the use of social networks is .83 (Gupta & Bashir, 2018).

Procedure

After conducting a qualitative analysis to determine the initial factor structure and doing a search of the relevant literature, the researchers categorized the use of social media into four distinct dimensions. After that, the millennials were approached to find out the positions that they take, especially on social media. After that questionnaire completed two additional stages of development, namely Exploratory Factor Analysis and Confirmatory Factor Analysis, before it was considered complete. The following section provides an overview of the details of the first two stages:

Factor Analysis of Multidimensional Scale of Social Media Use (MSMU)

Table 1
Measuring Sample Adequacy for MSMU (N = 346)

The adequacy of the sample was assessed through the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure and Bartlett's Test of Sphericity. According to Pallant (2013), a KMO value of 0.6 or higher indicates sufficient sample adequacy. Additionally, in Bartlett's Test of Sphericity, a significance value below 0.001 indicates that the data deviates significantly from an identity matrix, suggesting multivariate normality and suitability for further analysis. The results of these tests in the present study indicate high sample adequacy.

Figure 1
Scree Plot for Factor Analysis of MSMU Scale

Table 2
Exploratory Factor Analyses MSMU by Using Principle Component with Direct Oblimin

Table 2 showed that items Item 1 and 2 load on Passive Content Reading on social media.  Item 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13 load active social media use. Item 3, 4, 14, 15, 16, 17 and 18 loads on enhancement motive to use social media. Item 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 25, 27, and 28 loads on compensation motive to use social media. Overall, the results showed that the multidimensional scale of social media use was a valid and reliable measure.
The correlation matrix, mean, and standard deviation of all of the social media multidimensional scale variables' relationships with each other and with the whole scale are presented in Table 3. The findings suggest that every variable has a positive correlation, which suggests that the variables are connected in some way while remaining distinct. In addition, there is a significant positive relationship between each factor and the overall scale. There is a high level of internal consistency as evidenced by the fact that all factor and total scale alpha reliabilities are more than 0.70.
Furthermore, item total correlation analysis in the Table 4 indicates that 28 items of Multidimensional Scale of Social Media Use has positive correlation >.40. The item loadings are in the satisfactory range. It also shows that scale is a good measure for assessing this construct on this population.

Table 3
Psychometric properties and Correlation of the Subscales and Total Scale of Multidimensional Social Media Use

**p < .001. *p < .05.

Table 4
Item-total Correlation of Multidimensional Scale of Social Media Use

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) of MSMU

The factorial structure of the Multidimensional Scale of Social Media Usewas evaluated using confirmatory factor analysis. Table 5 displays the fit indices for this scale. On the other hand, Table 6 illustrates the standardized factor loadings for the same scale.

Table 5
Step Wise Model of CFA of Multidimensional Scale of Social Media Use for Millennials

*p < .001.

Table 5 shows the CFA stepwise model fit indices for the social media multidimensional scale. This investigation examined the scale's dimensions for correlation. An estimate for the initial Scale measuring model, which included 28 indicators, was developed using first-order confirmatory factor analysis. The CMIN/DF ratio is below 5, as Marsh et al., (1985) recommended for model adoption. GFI should be 0.90 or higher. Chi-square-to-df ratio was 2.42, and all model fit indices were 0.90 or above (GFI = 0.92, CFI = 0.90, and IFI = 0.91).  The scale was also acceptable with a CFI of 0.90. Research shows that RMSEA 0.046, less than .08, is suitable model data (Rigdon, 1996). Other model fit indices showed that the data and model were very similar. All four fit indices exceed 0.9, meeting the strictest fit index norms.  The RMR is .094. RMR below.5 is acceptable (Byrne, 2005; Diamantopoulos & Siguaw, 2000). The final scale has 28 elements (see Table 8).
Standardized factor loading of all indicators of both factors were above .45 which revealed that all factors of Multidimensional Scale of Social Media use had their unique contribution in the operationalization of this construct. The final model contains 28 items presenting a good model fit.

Table 6
Standardized Factor Loading in the Confirmatory Factor Analysis of MSMU

Figure 2
Standardized Factor Loadings in CFA of Multidimensional Scale of Social Media Use

Table 7
Correlation Matrix of Multidimensional Scale of Social Media its Subscales and Social Networking Usage Questionnaire with Subscales

*p < .05; **p < .001.

Table 7 shows Correlations of Multidimensional Scale of social media, its Subscales and social networking usage questionnaire along with subscales. Findings revealed that constructs, Multidimensional Scale of social media and social networking usage have significant positive correlation with each other and their respective subscales. Compensation subscale of Multidimensional Scale of social media has significant correlation with reading and significant negative correlation with academic subscale of social networking usage. Whereas enhancement subscale of Multidimensional Scale of social media has significant negative correlation with socialization subscale of social networking usage. Content reading also has significant positive correlation with socialization.

Table 8
Final Scale of Multidimensional Social Media Use Scale

Table 8 shows the final scale of social media use. It is 5-point likert scale where 1= کبھی نہیں and 5 = ہمیشہ . Item 1 and 2 measures Passive Content Reading on social media.  Item 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13 measures active social media use. Item 3, 4, 14, 15, 16, 17 and 18 measures enhancement motive to use social media. Item 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 25, 27, and 28 measures compensation motive to use social media.

Discussion

Based on EFA analysis, 31 out of 59 items from the Multidimensional Scale of Social Media Use (MSMU) were removed due to low factor loadings or cross-loading. The remaining 28 items produced a 4-factor solution that is both meaningful and coherent, allowing for interpretation. The factors consisted of Active Media Use, Enhancement Motive Use, Compensation Motive Use, and Passive Content Reading. Overall, the current findings demonstrate the validity and reliability of the factor structure of MSMU.
Social media use refers to the level of involvement individuals have in various activities on social media platforms. This involvement is driven by different motives and involves interaction with different communication partners (Yang et al., 2021).
Items of active social media use factor examines how much individuals utilize social media. The extent to which individuals incorporate social media into their daily routines and actively participate in the online social sphere can be observed through their usage of social media platforms. Utilizing social media can potentially have a beneficial impact on an individual's overall well-being. The active use of social media can also result in adverse consequences, including diminished attention span, heightened stress levels, and impaired emotional regulation. Hence, the active social media use factor of MSMU refers to participating in online activities such as creating and sharing content, posting updates, leaving comments on others' posts, sharing videos, self-presentations and active engagement in discussions by using different social media platforms. It also addresses that there may be both positive and alarming consequences of active social media use on mental health.
Second factor is enhancement motive use. It focusses on the goals that motivate users to utilize social media. It evaluates the extent to which the participants utilize social media to enhance their self-perception, self-worth, and social status. The enhancement motive of social media use is driven by the desire to enjoy, and present oneself in a favorable light and seek validation from others. The utilization of social media with the intention of improvement might potentially have advantageous impacts on an individual's well-being, including the increase of self-confidence, self-approval, and social affirmation. According to Yang's model, the enhancement motive is more commonly observed in collectivistic cultures, where there is a greater emphasis on social harmony and group identity rather than individual achievement (Li et al., 2019). Hence, the enhancement motive factor of MSMU refers to utilizing of social media platforms for the purpose of improving one's mental state, socialization, entertainment and relationship maintenance. Furthermore, it acknowledges that the utilization of social media is influenced by diverse personality traits, such as self-esteem, self-efficacy, and the desire for popularity, which may vary depending on the platforms and circumstances.
The third factor labelled as compensation motive highlights the goal to participate in social media for the sake of escapism and to build new relationships. The compensation motive use is driven by the need to compensate the negative feedback and for positive self-expression. The compensation motive factor pertains to users' utilization of social media as a means to address their social deficiencies or difficulties. Based on the compensation motive use, individuals who experience shyness, loneliness, or social anxiety may find social media to be advantageous. This is because they can engage in more open and comfortable communication online compared to offline interactions. However, excessive reliance on social media for social support or validation can result in adverse consequences, including addiction, depression, or diminished self-esteem (Gao et al., 2023). Though, Compensation motive factor of MSMU refers to use of social media for the purpose of relationship building, fear of missing out, escapism from negative real-life problems and to address their loneliness.
The last factor named passive content reading. It highlights the level at which users consume media content without actively engaging with it. The impact of media content on well-being can be influenced by its usage and the nature of the information. Phone conversations and texting can enhance well-being through the facilitation of social relationships and support, however online gaming can diminish well-being by replacing other social interactions and activities (Liu et al., 2019). So, passive content reading factor of MSMU refers to the use of social media without actively engaging with it, such as reading columns and discussions without leaving any comment on it.
To examine the evidence of convergent validity for the scales developed in this study, it was hypothesized that there would be positive relationships between MSMU and the Social Networking Usage Questionnaire (Gupta & Bashir, 2018). It is evident from the results that there is a strong correlation between MSMU and the usage of social networking usage. This provides strong evidence for the convergent validity of the MSMU. The reliability analysis of MSMU revealed that the alpha coefficients of the scales and subscales, such as active social media use, enhancement motive use, compensation motive use, and passive content reading, were ≥ .70. This indicates a satisfactory level of internal consistency. The clear factorial structure of the MSMU establishes its validity. The high magnitude of alpha indicates a strong level of internal consistency within the scales and subscales. The pattern of relationship in the expected direction provides strong evidence for the convergent validity. All these pieces of evidence demonstrate the strong construct validity of the scale.

Conclusion

To summarize, developing a multidimensional social media use scale is critical for improving our understanding of social media use in Pakistan. It is a 28 items scale which can be used to measure social media use across four different dimensions to provide the better considerate of social media use in our culture. A multidimensional framework presents a promising strategy for elucidating the complexities of online interactions on a global level, as scholars persist in investigating the intricacies of social media usage.

Limitations and Suggestions

Despite the fact that the developed instrument exhibited strong psychometric properties, the study sample size was small. Future research with larger sample size may further validate the findings of the instrument. In addition, the research was limited to millennials in Pakistan, and the findings may not apply to other demographics or cultures. In addition, the dependence of the study on self-reported measures may have created bias, since participants may have offered socially desired responses. Conducting longitudinal studies to track changes in social media use patterns over time and its impact on wellbeing will be enlightening for researchers. This approach can effectively capture the ever-changing dynamics of online interactions and offer valuable insights into the lasting impacts of social media usage.

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Received 17 May 2023
Revision received 26 January 2024